1. COST TERMS, CONCEPTS & CLASSIFICATIONS
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
- Be able to define and explain each term or concept in this chapter.
- Be able to prepare a Cost of Goods Manufactured statement.
- Understand the flow of costs through the accounting system.
- Cost of quality

2. Purpose of classification
COST TERMS, CONCEPTS & CLASSIFICATIONS
Purpose of classification
Cost classifications
Preparing an income statement and balance sheet
• Product costs    Direct materials    Direct labor    Manufacturing overhead
• Period costs (nonmanufacturing costs)    Marketing and selling costs    Administrative costs
Predicting changes in cost due to changes in activity
• Variable costs • Fixed costs
Assigning costs
• Direct costs • Indirect costs
Making decisions
• Differential costs • Sunk costs • Opportunity costs

3. COST TERMS, CONCEPTS & CLASSIFICATIONS
MANUFACTURING requires the use of DIRECT MATERIALS (DM), DIRECT LABOR (DL) and FACTORY OVERHEAD (FOH) to produce goods.

4. Direct Material
DM is not difficult, inconvenient or expensive to trace to products. DM would include most of the raw materials necessary to construct the finished product.

5. Direct Labor:
DL is not difficult, inconvenient or expensive to trace to products. DL would include most, if not all, the labor costs related to those who actually transform the materials or assemble the product.

6. Factory Overhead
FOH includes all the costs incurred in the factory except for DM and DL. Every FOH item would be considered an Indirect Cost. DM and DL are Direct Costs.

7. Marketing (selling) costs
Marketing (selling) costs are not part of FOH, nor are Administrative (ADM) costs. Both of these are also Period costs, whereas DM, DL and FOH are Product costs.

8. PRIME COST & CONVERSION costs
PRIME costs are the combination of DM and DL.
CONVERSION costs are the combination of DL and FOH.

9. PRODUCT COST
PRODUCT costs are the combination of DM, DL and FOH. They are also known as Inventory costs. These costs are not expensed (classified as cost of goods sold on the income statement) until the related products are sold.

10. PERIOD COST
PERIOD costs are the combination of Marketing and Administrative costs. These costs are expensed (show up on the income statement) in the period they are incurred.

11. COST CLASSIFICATIONS IN MANUFACTURING COMPANIES

12. Raw Material, Work in Process & Finished Goods
RM are the tangible items that will be used to make the physical form of the product. In effect, those items that will become DM and/or IDM.
WIP is the partially completed products. This would include some DM, DL and FOH but not all that is necessary to complete the products.
FG is the completed units of product that are ready to be sold.

13. Financial statements
Financial statements of manufacturing companies have some differences from merchandising or service businesses. The balance sheet would typically include three inventory accounts (RM, WIP & FG) instead of one inventory account for merchandising companies, or no inventory account for service businesses.

14. Financial statements
There would also be an additional financial statement called the Statement of Cost of Goods Manufactured. This statement would show the details of the materials, labor and factory overhead plus the beginning and ending work in process balances. In effect, this statement is a detailed summary of the Work In Process account.

15. FIXED COST
As production increases, or decreases, a cost that does not change in amount in total is called a FC. As a result of the cost not changing in total (as the number of units produced increases or decreases) the mathematical average, based upon the number of units produced, will change in an opposite direction. In effect, an increase in production will cause the average fixed cost per unit to decrease.

16. FIXED COST
For example, if rent expense (generally a FC) is $1,000 per month and we produce 200 units, the cost per unit, for rent, is $5 ($1,000 / 200 = 5). But if we produce 500 units, then the cost per unit would be $2 ($1,000 / 500 = 2).

17. VARIABLE COST
As production changes (increases or decreases) a cost that does change in amount in total, and in direct proportion to the change in production, is called a VC.

18. VARIABLE COST
The wood materials used to make a desk is an example. The total amount of wood needed would be directly proportional to the number of desks made, but the amount of wood needed for each desk would be the same. For example, if the wood for one desk cost $10, then the total cost for 5 desks would be $50 ($10 * 5).

19. Variable Cost Behavior Variable cost per unit is constant.
COST CLASSIFICATIONS TO DESCRIBE
COST BEHAVIOR
To describe how costs react to changes in activity, costs are often classified as variable or fixed.
VARIABLE COSTS-
Variable cost behavior can be summarized as follows:
Variable Cost Behavior
In Total
Per Unit
Total variable cost increases and decreases in proportion to changes in activity.
Variable cost per unit is constant.

20. Number of Ovens Produced Total Variable Cost-Timing Devices
COST CLASSIFICATIONS TO DESCRIBE
COST BEHAVIOR
EXAMPLE: A company manufactures microwave ovens. Each oven requires a timing device that costs $30. The per unit and total cost of the timing device at various levels of activity (i.e., number of ovens produced) would be:
Cost per Timing Device
Number of Ovens Produced
Total Variable Cost-Timing Devices
$30 1 10
$300
100
$3,000
200
$6,000

21. Fixed cost behavior can be summarized as follows:
FIXED COSTS
Fixed cost behavior can be summarized as follows:
Fixed Cost Behavior
In Total
Per Unit
Total fixed cost is not affected by changes in activity (i.e., total fixed cost remains constant even if activity changes).
Fixed cost per unit decreases as the activity level rises and increases as the activity level falls.

22. FIXED COSTS
EXAMPLE: Assume again that a company manufactures microwave ovens. The company pays $9,000 per month to rent its factory building. The total and per unit cost of rent at various levels of activity would be:
Number of
Rent Cost
Ovens
per Month
Produced
per Oven
$9,000 1 10
$900
100
$90
200
$45

23. A GRAPHIC VIEW OF COST BEHAVIOR
RELEVANT RANGE
If activity changes enough, fixed costs may change. For example, if microwave production were doubled, another factory building might have to be rented.
The relevant range is the range of activity within which the assumptions that have been made about variable and fixed costs are valid. For example, the relevant range within which total fixed factory rent is $9,000 per month might be 1 to 200 microwaves produced per month.

24. OPPORTUNITY COSTS
OC refer to the benefit forgone (given up) because of the decision made. For example, if you give up one hour of time to study for this class but instead you could have worked and earned $10, then your opportunity cost of studying for this one hour is $10.

25. SUNK COST
A SUNK cost is the amount paid, or to be paid, because of a previous commitment, and the cost cannot be changed by any decision made now or in the future. For example, the cost previously incurred to make ten units of inventory, eight of which have been sold and two not, is a sunk cost.

26. DIFFERENTIAL COSTS
When comparing two alternatives, the difference between the costs, or revenues, is referred to as the DIFFERENTIAL costs. Other similar terms are INCREMENTAL, AVOIDABLE, and CHANGABLE.

27. COST CLASSIFICATIONS FOR DECISION-MAKING
DIFFERENTIAL COST-
Every decision involves choosing from among at least two alternatives. Any cost that differs between alternatives is a differential cost. Only the differential costs are relevant in making a decision.
EXAMPLE: Bill is currently employed as a lifeguard, but he has been offered a job in an auto service center in the same town. The differential revenues and costs between the two jobs are listed below:

28. DIFFERENTIAL COST- Auto Differential Life- service costs and guard
center
revenues
Monthly salary
$1,200
$1,500
$300 
Monthly expenses:
Commuting 30 90
60 
Meals
150 0 
Apartment rent
450
Uniform rental 50
50 
Union dues
     10
       0
 (10)
Total monthly expenses
   640
   740
 100 
Net monthly income
$  560
$  760
$200 

29. Quick Review Question #1
Which of the following is most likely to be a variable cost?
Depreciation
Materials costs
Rent
Advertising

30. Quick Review Answer #1
Which of the following is most likely to be a variable cost?
Depreciation
Materials costs
Rent
Advertising

31. Quick Review Question #2
Which of the following is most likely to be a fixed cost?
Materials costs
Rent
Assembly labor cost
Commissions

32. Quick Review Answer #2
Which of the following is most likely to be a fixed cost?
Materials costs
Rent
Assembly labor cost
Commissions

33. Quick Review Question #3
Costs incurred in the past are:
Opportunity costs
Direct costs
Sunk costs
Variable costs

34. Quick Review Question #3
Costs incurred in the past are:
Opportunity costs
Direct costs
Sunk costs
Variable costs

35. Product Cost Information in Financial Reporting and Decision Making
GAAP (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles) requires that inventory on balance sheets and cost of goods sold on income statements be disclosed (reported) using Full Cost information.

36. Balance Sheet Presentation of Product Costs
Raw Materials Inventory.
Work in Process Inventory.
Finished Goods Inventory.

37. Flow of Product Costs in Accounts
Product costs flow from the Direct Materials, Direct Labor and Manufacturing Overhead through Work in Process to Finished Goods Inventory and finally to Cost of Goods Sold.

38. Income Statement Presentation of Product Costs
When finished goods are sold they are moved from Finished Goods to Cost of Goods Sold.

39. Cost of Goods Manufactured
Cost of Goods Manufactured includes all costs of goods completed during the period.

40. Cost of Goods Sold

41. Ryder Company incurred the following costs last month:
COST FLOWS EXAMPLE
Ryder Company incurred the following costs last month:
But:
• Some of the goods sold this month were produced in previous months.
• Some of the costs listed above were incurred to make goods that were not sold this month.
Therefore:
• Cost of goods sold does not equal the sum of the above costs.
• We need to determine the values of the various inventories.
Purchases of raw materials
$200,000
Direct labor
$270,000
Manufacturing overhead:
Indirect materials
$   5,000
Indirect labor
100,000
Utilities, factory
80,000
Property taxes, factory
36,000
Insurance, factory
9,000
Equipment rental
70,000
Depreciation, factory
 120,000
Total manufacturing overhead
$420,000

42. COST FLOWS EXAMPLE (cont’d)
Raw materials inventory:
Beginning raw materials inventory
$10,000
Purchases of raw materials
$200,000
Ending raw materials inventory
$30,000
Raw materials used in production
?   
Work in process inventory:
Beginning work in process inventory
$40,000
Total manufacturing costs
Ending work in process inventory
$60,000
Cost of goods manufactured (i.e., finished)
Finished goods inventory:
Beginning finished goods inventory
$130,000
Ending finished goods inventory
$80,000
Cost of goods sold

43. Basic Equation for Inventory Accounts:
INVENTORY FLOWS
Basic Equation for Inventory Accounts: or

44. COST FLOWS EXAMPLE (cont’d)
Computation of raw materials used in production-
Beginning raw materials inventory
$  10,000 +
Purchases of raw materials
200,000 –
Ending raw materials inventory
   30,000 =
Raw materials used in production
$180,000
Computation of total manufacturing cost-
Raw materials used in production
$180,000 +
Direct labor
270,000
Manufacturing overhead
 420,000 =
Total manufacturing costs
$870,000

45. Computation of cost of goods manufactured- + – =
Beginning work in process inventory
$  40,000 +
Total manufacturing costs
870,000 –
Ending work in process inventory
   60,000 =
Cost of goods manufactured (i.e., finished)
$850,000
Computation of cost of goods sold-
Beginning finished goods inventory
$130,000 +
Cost of goods manufactured (i.e., finished)
850,000 –
Ending finished goods inventory
   80,000 =
Cost of goods sold
$900,000

46. Many different products are produced each period.
JOB-ORDER COSTING
Many different products are produced each period.

47. THE FLOW OF DOCUMENTS IN A JOB-ORDER COSTING SYSTEM

48. MATERIALS REQUISITION FORM

49. EMPLOYEE TIME TICKET

50. JOB COST SHEET

51. APPLICATION OF OVERHEAD
In a job-order costing system, the cost of a job consists of:
Actual direct material costs traced to the job.
2. Actual direct labor costs traced to the job.
Manufacturing overhead applied to the job using a predetermined overhead rate. Actual overhead costs are not assigned to jobs.

52. APPLICATION OF OVERHEAD
Why overhead Predetermined and
difficult to trace-
indirect cost
either impossible or difficult to trace.
many different items
fluctuates but remain constant
Due to fixed costs.

53. APPLICATION OF OVERHEAD
• A predetermined overhead rate is used to assign overhead cost to products and services. It is:
• Based on estimated data.
• Established before the period begins.

54. PREDETERMINED OVERHEAD RATE FORMULA
The formula for computing a predetermined overhead rate is:
The company in the preceding example applies overhead costs to jobs on the basis of direct labor-hours. In other words, direct labor-hours or machine hours are the allocation base.

55. PREDETERMINED OVERHEAD RATE FORMULA
At the beginning of the year the company estimated that it would incur $320,000 in manufacturing overhead costs and would work 40,000 direct labor-hours. The company’s predetermined overhead rate is:

56. APPLICATION OF OVERHEAD TO JOBS
The process of assigning overhead to jobs is known as applying overhead.
In the preceding example, Job 2B47 required 27 direct labor-hours. Therefore, $216 of overhead cost was applied to the job as follows:
Predetermined overhead rate $8
per DLH
Direct labor-hours required for Job 2B47
× 27
DLHs
Overhead applied to Job 2B47
$216

57. Overapplied or Underapplied overhead
Actual >Estimated = Underapplied
Dr. COGS
Cr. M/O
Actual<Estimated = Overapplied
Dr. M/O
Cr. COGS

58. Disposition of Under or Overapplied Overhead
Closed out COGS
Add- Underapplied
Deduct- Overapplied
Allocated between WIP, FG and COGS in the ending balances of these accounts.