1. Lecture 1. Cell Structure & Cell Membrane
Shakarim State University of Semey
Lecture 1. Cell Structure & Cell Membrane
Sapakhova Zagipa Beisenovna, PhD

2. Cell Theory All living things are made up of cells.
Cells are the smallest working units of all living things.
All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division.

3. Definition of Cell
A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life functions.

4. Examples of Cells Amoeba Proteus Plant Stem Bacteria Red Blood Cell
Nerve Cell

5. Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Two Types of Cells
Prokaryotic
Eukaryotic

6. Prokaryotic Do not have structures surrounded by membranes
Few internal structures
One-celled organisms, Bacteria

7. Eukaryotic Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
Most living organisms
Plant
Animal

8. “Typical” Animal Cell

9. “Typical” Plant Cell

10. Cell Parts
Organelles

11. Surrounding the Cell

12. Cell Membrane
Outer membrane of cell that controls movement in and out of the cell
Double layer

13. Cell Wall Most commonly found in plant cells & bacteria
Supports & protects cells

14. The Structure of Cell Membranes:
Part III

15. The Cell Membrane
The cell membrane is a dynamic and intricate structure that regulates material transported across the membrane. The membrane is selectively permeable (or semi-permeable) meaning that certain molecules can cross the membrane and others cannot.
The roll of the cell wall is not the same as the cell membrane. Most cells, except for animal cells, have cell walls. They are composed of carbohydrates (polysaccharides which vary in composition depending on the kingdom). Cell walls are living material and are used to prevent the cells from bursting as well as to give them structures. Cell walls are porous and allow most everything to cross while the cell membrane is the barrier that regulates what "gets into and out of" the cell.
**Note: Cell wall structure and function is different than that of the cell membrane

16. Phospholipids
All cells have plasma membranes and many of their organelles also have membranes. All membranes are made from a bilayer of phospholipids.

17. Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Parts
Hydrophilic head is attracted to water and the hydrophobic tails are attracted to one another as the tails are hydrocarbons and nonpolar so they do not mix with water.
Phospholipids have hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.

18. Arrangement of Phospholipids in Membranes
The cell membrane has two layers of phospholipids as shown below. The hydrophilic heads are facing an aqueous environment and the hydrophobic tails are facing one another.

19. Movement of Phospholipids
Phospholipids have the ability to move laterally but only upon a rare occasion are able to make a 180o turn.

20. Saturated versus Unsaturated Phospholipids
Membranes are more fluid when they contain more unsaturated fatty acids within their phospholipids. More unsaturated fatty acids result in increased distance between the lipids making the layer more fluid.
When preparing for winter, many organisms incorporate more unsaturated phospholipids into their plasma membranes so they do not solidify.

21. Cholesterol and Phospholipids
A word about cholesterol - It is found in the cell membranes of animals but not plants. It affects the fluidity of the membrane.
Graphic

22. Cholesterol Functions in 3 ways
It can weakly bind to hydrocarbon tails making it more difficult for smaller molecules to cross membrane.
If the phospholipids are saturated, it prevents them from being packed too closely, making the membrane more fluid.
However - if the phospholipids are unsaturated there are kinks in the tails where the cholesterol molecules can fill in and anchor them making the membrane less fluid.

23. Fluid Mosaic Model Proteins are "stuck" in the membrane like a mosaic.
Proteins can be on just the surface (peripheral) or embedded in the membrane (intrinsic).
Proteins that span the entire membrane are called “transmembrane”
It is the different proteins that are responsible for the uniqueness of different membranes (plasma, eukaryotic, prokaryotic, organelle etc.)

24. Evidence for the Fluid Mosaic Model
The fluid mosaic model that represents the consensus view of the cell membrane’s structure is based on is the following:
The membrane is fluid as the phospholipids have lateral movement. Think of gasoline floating on water or Ping-Pong balls floating on water.
The membrane is a mosaic as proteins can be inserted at various locations in the membrane. Extrinsic proteins are those only on the surface of the membrane and intrinsic proteins are embedded within the membrane.
Point out that the intrinsic proteins are structured in such a way that the hydrophobic regions (nonpolar R groups) are facing the hydrocarbon tails of the layer and that the hydrophilic regions (polar and ionic R groups) are facing the aqueous region on the inside and outside of the cell.
Evidence for the fluid mosaic model can be seen when the plasma membrane split in half -- the proteins can been observed as little “bumps” in the membrane.

25. Proteins are Inserted into the Membrane
Function of Membrane Proteins
1. Transport proteins, or permeases, transport molecules across the membrane. Aquaporins are special protein channels used to move water across the membrane.
Proteins are "stuck" in the membrane like a mosaic. Proteins can be on just the surface (extrinsic) or embedded in the membrane (intrinsic). It is the different proteins that are responsible for the uniqueness of different membranes (plasma, eukaryotic, prokaryotic, organelle etc.)

26. Transport proteins continued
A transport protein is specific for the substance it translocates (moves), allowing only a certain substance (or substances) to cross the membrane.
Types of transport proteins
Channel proteins – function by having a hydrophilic channel that certain polar molecules or ions use as a tunnel
Ex. Aquaporins
Carrier proteins – function by holding onto their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane

27. Transport Proteins continued
Channel proteins would only allow for passive transport (down the concentration gradient) while carrier proteins can allow for passive or active (up the concentration gradient) transport

28. Functions of Other Membrane Proteins
2. Enzyme-Some proteins in the membrane may expose their active site to speed up a chemical reaction.
3. Receptor site-Ex. Insulin never goes into a cell but binds to a receptor site on the cell membrane
4. Cell to cell recognition (glycoproteins).
5. Intercellular joining (adhesion)
6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton (intracellular) and extracellular matrix (ECM only in animal cells)

29. Plasma Membrane Synthesis
The size of the plasma membrane is increased and decreased with the interaction of vesicles. Vesicles bringing material to the membrane to be secreted increase the surface area of the plasma membrane; and through the process of endocytosis, the surface area of the cell membrane decreases.

30. The Plasma Membrane
This is a nice illustration of the plasma membrane.
Ask if this this an animal cell membrane or plant cell membrane.
Answer-
Animal cell membrane because it contains the extracellular matrix and cholesterol is seen in the phospholipid bilayers.
Point out the following
The ECM found on the outside of the plasma membrane
Intrinsic (integral) and extrinsic (peripheral) proteins
The cytoskeleton
Glycolipids and glycoproteins are molecules containing sugar residues on them and are typically used in cell to cell recognition.

31. Thank you for your attention!

32. Inside the Cell

33. Nucleus Directs cell activities
Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane
Contains genetic material - DNA

34. Nuclear Membrane Surrounds nucleus Made of two layers
Openings allow material to enter and leave nucleus

35. Chromosomes In nucleus Made of DNA
Contain instructions for traits & characteristics

36. Nucleolus Inside nucleus Contains RNA to build proteins

37. Cytoplasm Gel-like mixture Surrounded by cell membrane
Contains hereditary material

38. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Moves materials around in cell
Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface

39. Ribosomes Each cell contains thousands Make proteins
Found on ribosomes & floating throughout the cell

40. Mitochondria
Produces energy through chemical reactions – breaking down fats & carbohydrates
Controls level of water and other materials in cell
Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates

41. Golgi Bodies Protein 'packaging plant' Move materials within the cell
Move materials out of the cell

42. Lysosome Digestive 'plant' for proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal
Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes

43. Vacuoles Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal
Contains water solution
Help plants maintain shape

44. Chloroplast Usually found in plant cells Contains green chlorophyll
Where photosynthesis takes place