1. The Industrialized Democracies “…the worst from of government except for all the others that have been tried.”

3. Thinking About Democracy
Key Questions
Why did democracy emerge in these countries?
Why did democracy become so remarkably durable in the second half of the 20th century?
Why is there so much debate about public policy in the industrialized democracies in the first years of the 21st century?
why has that debate not gone one step farther and led many people to question their regimes or democracy itself?

4. elections key principles:
elections are about who governs, not basic principles
voters choose who will govern
in free, open, and reasonably honest elections
elections are just part of the systems that guarantee basic personal and political freedoms

5. electoral differences among democracies
USA holds elections on fixed schedule; parliamentary systems do not
USA and France elect their chief executives; Britain does not
proportional, winner take all, coalition

6. differences in government
USA: division and separation of powers
all legislation is a product of compromise
Parliamentary system: unified or fused government
party discipline usually guarantees support for majority’s legislative proposals

7. despite differences, countries that are democratic do 2 things:
guarantee individual liberties
choose rulers through competitive elections
democracy is about the relationship between the ruler and the rules

8. necessary features of a democracy
(1) rights:
basic individual freedoms guaranteed
(2) competitive elections
government to be chosen through regular, free and fair elections
(3) the rule of law
clear, fair laws, in constitutions or statutes (vs. arbitrary, personal power)

9. (4) civil society and culture
in a stable democracy, people accept the rules and also “buy in”
(5) capitalism and affluence
without this, hard to sustain (1), (2) and (3) for extended time

10. The Origins of the Democratic State
domestic concerns more important than international concerns
Eurocentric historical connection
development took a long time

11. The Origins of the Democratic State
Evolution of democratic thought
Hobbes
Laissez-faire
Locke
Suffrage

12. recent origin of modern democracy (late 18th century)
opposition to society governed by feudal institutions, values and hierarchy
key addition to democratic thought:
limited government
government as referee

13. Hobbes: how to avoid “war of all against all”?
cede some freedom to the Leviathan
industrial capitalism  dominant economic system  shift toward democratic government
laissez-faire capitalism: the invisible hand of the marketplace (liberal capitalism)
Locke: role of the state: protect life, liberty and property

14. 4 great transformations of the last 500 years
how countries handled the following = how democracy developed
creation of the nation and state
role of religion in society and government
development of pressures for democracy
the industrial revolution

15. where democratization was difficult, no consensual resolution  led to cleavages [deep social divisions]
example of France and Italy: role of church in politics
example of Germany and Italy: not unified states until late 19th century

16. economic and military “catch-up”: Britain/France vs
economic and military “catch-up”: Britain/France vs. Germany, Japan, Italy
new democracies turned to authoritarian leaders and fascism
influence of cold war on development of strong democratic states in Western Europe and Japan: containment

18. Political Culture and Participation
how people’s thoughts and actions can buttress or undermine democracies
democratic beliefs coexisting with a degree of political passivity
political efficacy + willingness to do anything because they trust leaders to do what is right

19. legitimacy : critical in successful democracies
people accept the rules of the game
critical distinction between government and regime: can oppose the government without challenging the constitutional order itself
feeling of legitimacy remains despite dramatic drop in most forms of political participation and trust for most politicians

20. social capital : degree to which a society has networks that build trust and cooperation
attitude of tolerance
institutions that instill respect for views and actions of others

21. Political Parties and Elections
democracies give citizens many ways to participate in political life
most important: participation in competitive elections
political parties: the organizations responsible for contesting (running) elections and forming governments afterward

23. most political parties have roots in cleavages left by historical transformations (deeper in some countries than in others)
typical left-right spectrum defines parties

25. left parties: remnants of communist parties
opposed capitalism, supported USSR during cold war
social democratic parties:
supported nationalization of industry, extensive social welfare programs, greater equality
opposed USSR

26. liberals/radicals
19th century, supported fundamental change – separation of church and state, market economy democracy
Christian Democratic Parties
unresolved divisions over relationship between church and state
appeal primarily to Catholics in Germany and France
Right
secular conservatives – values similar to Christian Dems but no religious agenda

27. catch-all parties
try to appeal to all voters
1950s: shift in public opinion to center
economic growth, expansion of welfare state, escalation of cold war
end-of-ideology theory

28. growing influence of television
undermines ability of parties to take strong ideological positions, shape public opinion for long
increase cynicism

29. Ideology
Belief
North America
Liberalism
Limited state role in society and economic activity; high degree of personal freedom over social equality
Conservative
Communism
Limited personal freedom, strong state in order to achieve social equality; state owns property, market forces eliminated, state takes over economic decisions
Radical
Social Democracy/
Socialism
Private property and markets, but strong state role in regulation and providing benefits to public; balance freedom and equality
Liberal
Fascism
Low degree of personal freedom and equality in order to achieve powerful state
Reactionary
Anarchism
Elimination of state and private property to achieve freedom and equality

31. postindustrial
in last half century, advanced democracies have experienced clear shift from economies based primarily on industry and manufacturing to economies based on service

32. employment by economic sector, 1960 - 2004
SERVICES
INDUSTRY
AGRICULTURE
United States
1960
2004
58%
78%
33%
20% 9% 2%
Canada
55%
75%
32%
22%
13% 3%
Japan
41%
68%
29%
28%
30% 4%
France
39%
73%
38%
23%

33. postmodern
premodern: focus on traditional forms of authority and basic survival
modern: focus on rationality and science, individualism, autonomy, progress
postmodern: focus on nonmaterial gain

34. postmaterialist
rapid economic growth, improved living conditions
3rd affluent generation, assumed economic security
focus on ‘higher order’ values: job and personal satisfaction, self-actualization, international understanding

35. postmaterialist, cont.
less conservative than earlier generations of affluent voters
not left – serious reservations about welfare state, socialism
more supportive of peace and environmental movements
most likely to support Green party agenda

36. the new right
older, less educated, low skill
most threatened by high-tech, automation, outsourcing
priorities: maintain standard of living, national economic strength, security
hostile to rights of women and minorities, supportive of economic nationalism and traditional values

37. realignment
emergence of ‘new’ parties reflects how slowly individual parties and the national party system respond to social and economic change
“realignment”: a shift in the basic electoral balance of power in which substantial groups in a society change their longterm party identification

38. dealignment always precedes realignment
realignment cont.
dealignment always precedes realignment
voters have to sever psychological ties
rates of party identification have plummeted
voter skepticism about what parties/ politicians can deliver

39. interest groups a feature of all industrialized democracies
trade unions, business groups and other associations that are most visible, disruptive and influential
relationship between interest groups and decision makers varies tremendously from country to country
interest groups that concentrate on economic issues and represent groups that are central to the country’s economic future tend to have most influence

40. political protest also a feature of all industrialized democracies
great variation in tactics, numbers, longevity, scope (national, regional, local), ideology
main catalyst for anger: feeling that electoral process does not represent them
most do not question legitimacy of the regime
fringe groups have little influence

41. The Democratic State
the power relationship between the state and society
key feature: how representation of the people in government is handled
informal access to government (political parties, interest groups, protest) do give citizens in industrial democracies more influence BUT
democratic states do impose limits on what people can do

42. Presidential vs. Parliamentary systems
both based on critical democratic principle of competitive elections
only one industrialized democracy has a true presidential system: USA

43. United States: overall intent of founders:
create a state in which it would be very difficult for rulers to:
abuse power or
act quickly
need to compromise is not a problem – it is the norm

44. Parliamentary system: with a secure majority party or coalition, PM has little need to compromise
quick, decisive, predictable action
US President: little leverage over what congress does – noncompliant
bills can be drastically altered or easily defeated at many points – incoherent result
Parliament: majority can guarantee that proposals it introduces are passed intact - compliant

45. US Presidential system: power is separated
Parliamentary system: power is fused
after election, parliament selects PM
not elected by country as a whole
normally head of majority party or coalition parties
PM appoints rest of the cabinet
MPs who retain their seats while serving in the cabinet

46. Cabinet responsibility to Parliament
most important feature of parliamentary system
government remains in office until the next election if and only if it retains the support of the majority on all major pieces of legislation

47. vote of confidence
government must keep its majority on votes of confidence, in which parliament is explicitly asked to affirm its support for the government
if government loses, it must resign
a new majority can come into existence within existing parliament to form a new government or
Parliament is dissolved, leading to new election

48. in Parliamentary system, legislative process rarely produces more than slight changes in an introduced bill where there is a clear majority
in Parliamentary system, lobbyists have to exert their influence before legislation is submitted to parliament

51. the rest of the state: the bureaucrats
law making and governing requires expertise that most elected officials lack
2 additional sets of actors:
civil servants in the bureaucracy
leading interest group representatives

52. theoretically, civil servants are dispassionate and apolitical
recruited and promoted on basis of merit
ideal: objective, scientific, expert, not motivated buy ideology or personal agenda, follow rules clearly laid out in law
reality: civil servants are important, unelected, unaccountable policy makers

53. iron triangle
alliance between business, bureaucratic and political elites
in U.S., A close relationship between an agency, a congressional committee and an interest group

55. Public Policy
orthodox economic theory: state should not interfere in economy
properly functioning markets, driven by balancing effects of supply and demand will provide maximum wealth at minimum cost

56. limitations:
free markets will not provide collective or public goods
markets will only function optimally with certain conditions that they will not self-impose:
competition, absence of concentration of wealth or power

57. Economic policy: from the interventionist state to privatization
made even more necessary after Industrial Revolution
offers services that private/charitable sectors can’t or won’t offer
basic health care
education
unemployment compensation
pensions

58. 21st century economic transformations  effects on economic policy of democratic states
economic center of gravity shifting from manufacturing to service sector
millions of jobs lost to automation or to the third world
globalization of economic activity  no state has the power it once had to enact and implement its own economic policies

59. Foreign policy
cold war: most industrialized democracies followed foreign policy lead of USA
post cold war: USA remains sole military superpower
western allies remain close on most issues of national security
more autonomy on issues of trade, environmental policy, etc.
intersection of international relations and comparative politics