1. Thinking Critically with Psychological Science
Psychology 7e in Modules

2. Impression of Psychology
With hopes of satisfying curiosity, many people listen to talk-radio counselors and psychics to learn about others and themselves.
Dr. Crane (radio-shrink)
Psychic (Ball gazing)

3. The Need for Psychological Science
Intuition & Common Sense
Many people believe that intuition and common sense are enough to bring forth answers regarding human nature.
Intuition and common sense may aid queries, but they are not free of error.
Psychology 7e in Modules

4. Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?
Errors of Common Sense
Try this !
Fold a piece of paper (0.1 mm thick) 100 times. How thick will it be?
Psychology 7e in Modules

5. 800,000,000,000,000 times the distance between the sun and the earth.

6. Limits of Intuition
Personal interviewers may rely too much on their “gut feelings” when meeting with job applicants.
Taxi/ Getty Images

7. Hindsight Bias is the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon.
After learning the outcome of an event, many people believe they could have predicted that very outcome. We only knew the dot.com stocks would plummet after they actually did plummet.
OBJECTIVE 1| Describe hindsight bias and explain how it can make research findings seem like mere common sense.
“Anything seems commonplace, once explained.” Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes.
Two phenomena – hindsight bias and judgmental overconfidence – illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense.
Psychology 7e in Modules

8. Overconfidence Sometimes we think we know more than we actually know.
Anagram
How long do you think it would take to unscramble these anagrams?
WREAT
WATER
ETYRN
ENTRY
OBJECTIVE 2| Describe how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments.
People said it would take about 10 seconds, yet on average they took about 3 minutes (Goranson, 1978).
GRABE
BARGE
Psychology 7e in Modules

9. Psychological Science
How can we differentiate between uniformed opinions and examined conclusions?
The science of psychology helps make these examined conclusions, which leads to our understanding of how people feel, think, and act as they do!

10. The Scientific Attitude
The scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how the scientific attitude encourages critical thinking.
Psychology 7e in Modules

11. Critical thinking does not accept arguments and conclusions blindly.
It examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.
Courtesy of the James Randi Education Foundation
The Amazing Randi

12. Scientific Method
Psychologists, like all scientists, use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize and simplify observations.
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe how psychological theories guide scientific research.
Psychology 7e in Modules

13. for example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
Theory
A Theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events.
explains
organizes
predicts
for example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression.
Psychology 7e in Modules

14. e.g. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.
Hypothesis
A Hypothesis is a testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory.
e.g. People with low self-esteem are apt to feel more depressed.

15. Research Observations
Research would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm our hypothesis.

16. Research Process

17. Types of data and design
Description
Simply describes a phenomenon

18. Correlation Looks at relations among variables
Correlation versus Causation

19. Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect
Independent and Dependent Variables

20. Description
Types:
The Case Study
The Survey
Naturalistic Observation

21. Is language uniquely human?
Description
Case Study
A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes.
Susan Kuklin/ Photo Researchers
Is language uniquely human?
Psychology 7e in Modules

22. Case Study Clinical Study
A clinical study is a form of case study in which the therapist investigates the problems associated with a client.

23. Survey
A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling.
Psychology 7e in Modules

24. Survey Random Sampling
If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid.
The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

25. Wording can change the results of a survey.
Wording Effect
Wording can change the results of a survey.
Q: Should cigarette ads and pornography be allowed on television? (not allowed vs. forbid)

26. (who agrees to respond?)
Survey
Response Rate
(who agrees to respond?)

27. Response Biases
Social Desirability
Response Sets

28. Naturalistic Observation
Observing and recording the behavior of animals in the wild and recording self-seating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitute naturalistic observation.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes.
Courtesy of Gilda Morelli
Psychology 7e in Modules

29. Descriptive Methods Summary
Case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation describe behaviors.

30. (positive or negative)
Correlation
When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate.
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +
0.37
OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction.
Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Psychology 7e in Modules

31. Scatterplots
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
Scatterplot is a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables. The slope of the points depicts the direction, while the amount of scatter depicts the strength of the relationship.

32. Scatterplots
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
The Scatterplot on the left shows a negative correlation, while the one on the right shows no relationship between the two variables.

33. Correlation and Causation
OBJECTIVE 9| Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-effect relationships.
Psychology 7e in Modules

34. Disconfirming evidence
Illusory Correlation
The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
Confirming evidence
Disconfirming evidence
Do not
adopt
Adopt
Do not conceive
Conceive
OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form illusory correlations.
Michael Newman Jr./ Photo Edit
Psychology 7e in Modules

35. Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Order in Random Events
Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.
Psychology 7e in Modules

36. Order in Random Events
Given large numbers of random outcomes, a few are likely to express order.
Jerry Telfer/ San Francisco Chronicle
OBJECTIVE 11| Explain the human tendency to perceive order in random events.
Angelo and Maria Gallina won two California lottery games on the same day.
Psychology 7e in Modules

37. Exploring Cause and Effect
Experimentation
Exploring Cause and Effect
Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments isolate causes and their effects.
OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect.
Psychology 7e in Modules

38. Exploring Cause & Effect
Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control.
***Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

39. Independent Variable
An Independent Variable is a factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study.
For example, when examining the effects of breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
Psychology 7e in Modules

40. Dependent Variable
A Dependent Variable is a factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually a behavior or a mental process.
For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.

41. Operational definition
Precise defining of variable to be manipulated or measured.
i.e., What precisely will be manipulated or measured, and how.
Examples:

42. Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experimental (Breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo.
Psychology 7e in Modules

43. Double-blind Procedure
Evaluating Therapies
Double-blind Procedure
In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter’s assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment.
OBJECTIVE 13| Explain why random assignment and double-blind procedure build confidence in research findings.
Psychology 7e in Modules

44. A summary of steps during experimentation.

45. Below is a comparison of different research methods.

46. Describing Data
A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions.
OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data.
Psychology 7e in Modules

47. Measures of Central Tendency
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution.
Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together.
Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores.
Psychology 7e in Modules

48. Measures of Central Tendency
A Skewed Distribution

49. Measures of Variation
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Standard Deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation.
Psychology 7e in Modules

50. Standard Deviation

51. Making Inferences
A statistical statement of how frequently an obtained result occurred by experimental manipulation or by chance.
Psychology 7e in Modules

52. When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Making Inferences
When is an Observed Difference Reliable?
Representative samples are better than biased samples.
Less variable observations are more reliable than more variable ones.
More cases are better than fewer cases.
OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples.
Psychology 7e in Modules

53. When is a Difference Significant?
Making Inferences
When is a Difference Significant?
When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large, we say the difference has statistical significance.
For psychologists this difference is measured through alpha level set at 5 percent.
OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful.
Psychology 7e in Modules