1. Observational Research
Chapter 12:
Observational Research

2. Observational Research
Naturalistic observation
Describing behaviors in natural settings
Observer is unobtrusive, or
Habituation assumed
e.g., with animal observations (Goodall example)
Examples:
Snack selection at movie theaters
Gender differences in fighting behaviors at a bar
Helping behaviors in a preschool setting

3. Observational Research
Naturalistic observation
Participant observation
Experimenter joins group being observed
e.g., Festinger’s study of a cult
Data recording problems
Ethical issues
Experimenters changing the group

4. Observational Research
Challenges facing observational methods
Absence of control
But falsification of strong claims possible
Observer bias
Use of behavior checklists
Interobserver reliability
Participant reactivity
Use of unobtrusive measures helps
Ethics
Consent and privacy issues

5. Observational Research
Research example
Naturalistic observation in a science museum
Consent obtained (unusual in observational research)
Event sampling used
Results  parents (Dads and Moms) explain science concepts more to their sons than to their daughters

6. Survey Research Samples vs. populations
Biased vs. representative samples
Self selection bias
Probability sampling
Random sampling
Each member of pop. has equal chance of being selected as member of sample

7. Survey Research Probability sampling Stratified sampling
Separate individuals according to some important variable (strata), then randomly sample some individuals from each stratum
Cluster sampling
Identify natural/convenient clusters
randomly select a cluster of individuals all having some feature in common
Example: Wages in Brooklyn
Stratified
Cluster

8. Survey Research Nonprobability sampling
Does NOT provide representative samples, but are easier to do
Convenience sampling
Select subjects who are available and convenient (e.g., Introductory Psychology “subject pool”)
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Ask subjects to get their acquaintances to participate
Often done with online surveys

9. Survey Research Varieties of survey methods Interview surveys
Plus  in-person, comprehensive, follow-ups possible
Minus  representative samples, cost, logistics, interviewer bias
Phone surveys
Plus  cost, efficiency
Minus  must be brief, response rate, sugging
Electronic surveys
Minus  sampling issues, ethics

10. Survey Research Creating an effective survey
Types of survey questions or statement
Open-ended vs. closed questions
Use of Likert scales
Avoid response bias
Be sure to give an appropriate # of units
Reverse coding
Assessing memory and knowledge
Moderate use of DK alternative
Adding demographic information
Basic identifying data (e.g., age, income)
Place at end of survey
I am generally a happy person.
I am content with my life.
I try to look at the bright side.
Most often I feel miserable.

11. Survey Research Creating an effective survey
A key problem: survey wording
Avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps)
Don’t ask for two things in one question
Double-barreled questions
Please agree or disagree with the following statement: Cars should be faster and safer.
How satisfied are you with your pay and job conditions?
Should the government spend less money on the military and more on education?
Avoid biased and leading questions
College is a stressful place. How would you rate your level of stress?
Do you think it’s awful that Congress spends so much money on foreign affairs?