1. Types of Fractures by Projectiles
Bullets are a projectile force (load) that can pass through glass.
Load side is the entrance side; unloaded side is the exit side.
Low-speed projectiles: rib marks may indicate where breaking force was applied
As the bullet’s velocity increases, the central hole becomes smaller, cracking patterns become simpler, and the exit hole becomes wider than the entrance hole.

2. Which side was the bullet fired from?
Fractures by Projectiles
Which side was the bullet fired from?
Exit (unloaded) side is wider than entry (load) side.
Stress lines on the glass edge of radial cracks form a right angle on the reverse side from the force.
Stress lines on the glass edge of concentric cracks form a right angle on the same side from the force.

3. Which Bullet Hole Was First?
The sequence of impacts can be determined since crack propagation is stopped by earlier cracks.
In the figures above, which impact occurred first?

4. Putting it Back Together Again?
Examiners can fit together two or more pieces of glass that were broken from the same object.
Because glass is amorphous, no two glass objects will break the same way.

5. Forensic Analysis of Glass

6. Forensic Examination of Glass
Goals in examining glass evidence:
Determine the types of glass at the scene
Determine how the glass was fractured
Use physical characteristics to classify it
Individualize the glass to a source
Compare physical and chemical characteristics:
Non-optical properties: surface wear, striations from manufacturing, thickness, surface film or dirt, hardness, density
Optical properties: color and refractive index
Chemical properties: additives or trace elements

7. Glass Transfer Evidence
When broken, glass flies backward from all parts of the object where cracks appear not just from point of impact.
This creates a shower of minute glass particles and a transfer of evidence.
Glass fragment comparison depends finding and measuring properties that will associate one glass fragment with another while eliminating other sources.

8. Optical Properties of Glass
Make side-by-side comparisons using similar-sized fragments.
Place samples on a white surface using natural light.
Use both fluorescent and incandescent light to determine the glass’s color.
Visual color analysis is very subjective.
Dyes and pigments can be almost impossible to extract.

9. Nonoptical Physical Properties of Glass
Surface striations and markings
Rollers leave parallel ream marks on sheet glass
Markings may indicate the glass’s orientation when pieces are missing
Surface scratches, etchings, and other markings may also be used to individualize evidence
Other Properties
Hardness=5-6 on Mohs scale; use a scratch test.
Determinations of curvature can distinguish flat glass from container, decorative, or ophthalmic.

10. Physical Properties of Glass

11. Why Measure Density?
Can be used as a screening technique with large numbers of fragments.
Useful in identifying multiple sources present in the known and/or questioned samples.
It is nondestructive and an intensive property (not dependant on sample mass).
Need to measure very precisely in parts per thousand or better.

12. Glass Density Density can be measured by:
directly determining mass and volume (usually by displacement)
comparison by flotation
comparison using a density gradient column
Density gradient column method:
Fragments of different densities settle at different levels in the column
Technique is not accurate for fragments that are cracked

13. Density by the Flotation Method
A glass particle is immersed in a liquid. The density of the liquid is adjusted by the addition of small amounts of another liquid until the glass chip remains suspended.
At this point, the glass will have the same density as the liquid medium and can be compared to other relevant pieces of glass which will remain suspended, sink, or float.

14. Why Measure Refractive Index?
Refractive index: ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in any other medium
For example, at 25oC the refractive index of water is This means that light travels times faster in a vacuum than it does in water.
Like density, refractive index is an intensive property but it can be measured very precisely (±0.0002) and does not destroy the sample.
Refractive index of glass varies with small changes in composition or by how it is manufactured.

15. Snell’s Law
N=1.52
N=1.33
The higher the n, the more the light bends

16. Refractive Index By Immersion

17. Chemical Analysis of Glass
Fluorescence
Under UV radiation, many glasses exhibit fluorescence (glow)
Caused by heavy metals (including tin) from “float” process or organic coatings
Scanning Electron Microscopy Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis
Can determine many elements simultaneously
Surfaces of samples (>50 mg) can be analyzed
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
You must first know which elements are present
Can analyze ppm levels of elements present

18. The Wave of the Future: Laser Ablation
Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)
Laser burns off a microscopic sample
Elements are ionized by plasma
Detects 46 trace elements and their isotopes simultaneously in glass at < 1 ppb