1. What do we mean by the word “knowledge?”
It is a thick concept
When a short definition is not enough, it is called a thick concept word.
It can only be understood through experience and reflection
Examples: knowledge, love, betrayal
Maybe knowledge should be defined as “justified true belief”…

2. Justified true belief I think he is a brave man.
A true belief must be justified in the right way to be knowledge.
I know he is a brave man because he got my iPod back from a thief. - Well, what if he just happened to find the iPod on the bus because the thief lost it the day after he stole it?

3. Truth Also a thick concept
truth is independent of what anyone happens to believe is true
simply believing that something is true, does not make it true
even if EVERYONE believes that something is true… it may turn out to be false (e.g. Pluto as a planet)
How can we ever be sure that what we think we know really is true?
When we say that something is true, we usually mean that it is “beyond reasonable doubt”.

4. Belief
When you know something, then what you claim to know must not only be true, but you must also believe it to be true.
If you have no conscious awareness of something, then it makes little sense to say that you know it.
When you know something you are certain of it, and when you merely believe it you are not certain.
It is important to develop a reasonable and well-supported set of beliefs
Belief-knowledge continuum (page 25)

5. 3 examples of various kinds of belief
vague belief
I may vaguely believe that drinking coffee helps to reduce the risk of heart disease, but have no idea where I came across this idea and readily abandon it in the light of counter-evidence.
well-supported belief
I may believe that Drew Peterson killed Kathleen Savio, and be able to give evidence for my belief, but still be unwilling to say that I know that this is the case.
belief that is beyond reasonable doubt
I may find the evidence that there is no such thing as aliens so convincing that the counter-evidence of people finding signs of alien existence are untrue

6. Justification
In order to say that you know something you must be able to justify your belief, and your justification must be of the right kind; true belief is not enough alone
We usually justify our knowledge claims by appealing to one of the 4 ways of knowing…
If someone asks you how you know, you might reply…
Someone told me (language)
I saw it (perception)
I worked it out (reason)
It’s intuitively obvious (emotion)

7. Justification, cont’d.
The key thing that distinguishes acceptable from unacceptable justifications seems to be reliability.
E.g. perception vs. telepathy
When you say you know something you are, in a sense, taking responsibility for it being true.
E.g. “I’m positive that you can eat those berries.”

8. Levels of Knowledge
More to knowledge than simply saying it’s justified true belief
You may have…
a superficial grasp
a good understanding
complete mastery of a subject

9. Knowledge and Information
There is a difference between knowledge and understanding
Drilling random facts into someone’s mind may be good for a quiz show, but it does not lead to genuine understanding.
A person with genuine knowledge of a subject does not merely have information about it, but understands how the various parts are related to one another to form a meaningful whole.
Information = knowledge: bricks = a building

10. Second-hand knowledge
Our ability to communicate with one another also means that we are able to pass on our beliefs and practices from one generation to another in the form of culture.
Progressing by accumulating achievements of past generations
Primary knowledge: is not common in most learning situations. We mostly get second hand knowledge.

11. Knowledge by Authority/Testimony
Also known as second hand knowledge where truth is based on what another says
Main sources…
Cultural Tradition
School
The Internet
Expert Opinion
The News Media
All valuable sources of information, but not without limitations…
(activity on page 31)

12. Cultural Tradition
The culture we grow up in has a strong influence on the way we see the world
We have a natural attachment to our own beliefs and practices
Our culture is what we consider as normal or rational
Living traditions are inherited but can change over time

13. School What is the difference between education and indoctrination?
Education is what is taught.
Indoctrination is the way something is taught to you
The hallmark of a good school is on that encourages you to question things and think for yourself

14. The Internet
The advantage of the internet is its speed and accessibility
It can be a source for information and disinformation
Urban legend: disinformation – A story/belief that is passed along when there is no quality control.
Nostradamus predicted the attack on the World Trade Center
Waterproof sun-screen can cause blindness in children
If you mark “C” for all your answers on the ACT you will get a 16

15. Expert Opinion
Knowledge derived from experts, but those experts can be fallible
We have to rely on expert opinion to justify many of our knowledge claims
Accept that sometimes they are wrong and that they are experts in only certain topics within their field (no science experts but there are photosynthesis experts)

16. News Media
There is some bias in both the selection and presentation of news stories
There seem to be 3 common criteria for deciding what to put into a news bulletin
Bad news
Crimes, wars and natural disasters
Bad news bias: gives people a pessimistic view of the state of the planet and creates a climate of fear
Extraordinary news
It’s relevant news

17. Limitations of Second-hand Knowledge
Talking with people with different opinions may help us to improve our self-knowledge and develop a more balanced picture of the world.