1. Forestry
Chapter 10

2. Forests Vary in Their Make-Up, Age, and Origins
Old-growth or primary forest
Has not been seriously disturbed by human activities for 200 years or more
36% of world’s forests

3. Forests Vary in Their Make-Up, Age, and Origins
Second-growth forest
Tree plantation, tree farm or commercial forest

4. Rotation Cycle of Cutting and Regrowth of a Monoculture Tree Plantation

5. Figure 10.3
Short (25- to 30-year) rotation cycle of cutting and regrowth of a monoculture tree plantation used in modern industrial forestry. In tropical countries, where trees can grow more rapidly year-round, the rotation cycle can be 6–10 years. Old-growth or second-growth forests are clear-cut to provide land for growing most tree plantations (see photo, right). Question: What are two ways in which this process can degrade an ecosystem?
Fig. 10-3a, p. 216

6. Figure 10.3
Short (25- to 30-year) rotation cycle of cutting and regrowth of a monoculture tree plantation used in modern industrial forestry. In tropical countries, where trees can grow more rapidly year-round, the rotation cycle can be 6–10 years. Old-growth or second-growth forests are clear-cut to provide land for growing most tree plantations (see photo, right). Question: What are two ways in which this process can degrade an ecosystem?
Fig. 10-3b, p. 216

8. Natural Capital: Major Ecological and Economic Services Provided by Forests

9. Science Focus: Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services
Forests valued for ecological services
Nutrient cycling
Climate regulation
Erosion control
Waste treatment
Recreation
Raw materials
$4.7 Trillion per year

10. Estimated Annual Global Economic Values of Ecological Services Provided by Forests

11. Unsustainable Logging is a Major Threat to Forest Ecosystems (1)
Increased erosion
Sediment runoff into waterways
Habitat fragmentation
Loss of biodiversity
Invasion by nonnative pests and disease

12. Natural Capital Degradation: Building Roads into Previously Inaccessible Forests

13. Tree Harvesting Methods
Major tree harvesting methods:
Selective cutting
Clear-cutting
Strip cutting

14. Figure 10.6
Major tree harvesting methods. Question: If you were cutting trees in a forest you owned, which method would you choose and why?
Fig. 10-6a, p. 219

15. Figure 10.6
Major tree harvesting methods. Question: If you were cutting trees in a forest you owned, which method would you choose and why?
Fig. 10-6b, p. 219

16. Figure 10.6
Major tree harvesting methods. Question: If you were cutting trees in a forest you owned, which method would you choose and why?
Fig. 10-6c, p. 219

17. (a) Selective cutting
(c) Strip cutting
Clear stream
(b) Clear-cutting
Muddy stream
Uncut
Cut 1 year ago
Dirt road
Cut 3–10 years ago
Clear stream
Figure 10.6
Major tree harvesting methods. Question: If you were cutting trees in a forest you owned, which method would you choose and why?
Stepped Art
Fig. 10-6a, p. 219

18. Clear-Cut Logging in Washington State, U.S.

19. Trade-offs: Advantages and Disadvantages of Clear-Cutting Forests

20. Fires Can Affect Forest Ecosystems
Some ecosystems rely on fire
Part of the natural cycle
Surface fires
Usually burn leaf litter and undergrowth
Prevent more destructive fires
Allow for some plants (conifers) to release seeds
Controlled burns (prescribed fires)

21. Fire, Insects, and Climate Change Can Threaten Forest Ecosystems
Crown fires
Occurs in the treetops
Extremely hot: burns whole trees
Kill wildlife

22. Surface and Crown Fires

23. U.S. Forest Invading Nonnative Insect Species and Disease Organisms

24. We Have Cut Down Almost Half of the World’s Forests
Deforestation
Tropical forests
Cover 6% of earth’s land area
Home to approx. 50% of plants and animal species
Especially in Latin America, Indonesia, and Africa
Boreal forests
Important for producing O2 and removing CO2
Especially in Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia

25. Satellite Images of Amazon Deforestation between 1975 and 2001

26. Natural Capital Degradation: Extreme Tropical Deforestation in Thailand

27. Natural Capital Degradation: Harmful Environmental Effects of Deforestation

28. Case Study: Many Cleared Forests in the United States Have Grown Back
Forests of the eastern United States decimated between 1620 and 1920
Grown back naturally through secondary ecological succession
Biologically simplified tree plantations reduce biodiversity

29. Major Causes of the Destruction and Degradation of Tropical Forests

30. Solution: Sustainable Forestry

31. We Can Reduce the Demand for Harvested Trees
Improve the efficiency of wood use
Make tree-free paper
Use recycled paper

32. Kenaf

33. Case Study: Deforestation and the Fuelwood Crisis
Developing countries rely on fuelwood
Results in deforestation
Haiti: ecological disaster for unsustainable forestry

34. Solutions: Sustaining Tropical Forests

35. Managing Grasslands Rangelands Pastures Overgrazing Rotational Grazing
Riparian Zones

37. National Parks Face Many Environmental Threats
Worldwide: 1100 major national parks
Parks in developing countries
Greatest biodiversity
Only 1% protected against
Illegal animal poaching
Illegal logging and mining

38. Case Study: Stresses on U.S. Public Parks
58 Major national parks in the U.S.
Biggest problem may be popularity
Noise
Congestion
Pollution
Damage or destruction to vegetation and wildlife
Repairs needed to trails and buildings

39. Natural Capital Degradation: Damage From Off-Road Vehicles

40. Solutions: National Parks

41. Science Focus: Effects of Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park
Gray wolves prey on elk and push them to a higher elevation
Regrowth of aspen, cottonwoods, and willows
Increased riparian areas
Reduced the number of coyotes
Fewer attacks on cattle

42. Nature Reserves Occupy Only a Small Part of the Earth’s Land
Conservationists’ goal: protect 20% of the earth’s land
Cooperation between government and private groups
Nature Conservancy
Eco-philanthropists
Developers and resource extractors opposition

43. Land Trusts

44. The Ecosystem Approach
Argument that the best way to sustain biodiversity is to protect threatened habitats and ecosystem services.
Whole ecosystem or whole habitat approach
Don’t just focus on a single species

45. Designing and Connecting Nature Reserves
Large versus small reserves
The buffer zone concept
Habitat corridors between isolated reserves

46. Solutions: A Model Biosphere Reserve

47. Visitor education center
Biosphere Reserve
Core area
Research station
Visitor education center
Figure 10.24
Solutions: a model biosphere reserve. Each reserve contains a protected inner core surrounded by two buffer zones that local and indigenous people can use for sustainable logging, growing limited crops, grazing cattle, hunting, fishing, and ecotourism. Question: Do you think some of these reserves should be free of all human activity, including ecotourism? Why or why not?
Buffer zone 1
Human settlements
Buffer zone 2
Fig , p. 237

48. Wildlife Corridors/Habitat Corridors

49. Case Study: Costa Rica—A Global Conservation Leader
1963–1983: cleared much of the forest
1986–2006: forests grew from 26% to 51%
Goal: to reduce net carbon dioxide emissions to zero by 2021
Eight zoned megareserves
Designed to sustain around 80% of Costa Rica’s biodiversity

50. Solutions: Costa Rica: Parks and Reserves—Megareserves

51. Nicaragua Caribbean Sea Costa Rica Panama Pacific Ocean
Figure 10.25
Solutions: Costa Rica has consolidated its parks and reserves into eight zoned megareserves designed to sustain about 80% of the country’s rich biodiversity. Green areas are protected reserves and yellow areas are nearby buffer zones, which can be used for sustainable forms of forestry, agriculture, hydropower, hunting, and other human activities.
Pacific Ocean
National parkland
Buffer zone
Fig , p. 238

52. Protecting Wilderness Is an Important Way to Preserve Biodiversity
Pros
Cons

53. Case Study: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the United States
Wilderness Act of 1964
Roadless Rule
2005: end of roadless areas within the national forest system

54. DEFINITION OF WILDERNESS
(c) A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain. An area of wilderness is further defined to mean in this Act an area of undeveloped Federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which (1) generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man's work substantially unnoticeable; (2) has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; (3) has at least five thousand acres of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; and (4) may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value

55. We Can Use a Four-Point Strategy to Protect Ecosystems
Map global ecosystems; identify species
Locate and protect most endangered species
Restore degraded ecosystems
Development must be biodiversity-friendly

56. Biodiversity Hotspots
Biodiversity hotspot - a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction. 

57. Endangered Natural Capital: Biodiversity Hotspots in the U.S.

58. Case Study: A Biodiversity Hot Spot in East Africa
Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania, Africa
Highest concentration of endangered species on earth
Threatened due to
Destruction of forests by farmers and loggers
Hunting
Fires

59. Case Study: Madagascar

60. We Can Rehabilitate and Restore Ecosystems That We Have Damaged (1)
Study how natural ecosystems recover
Restoration
Rehabilitation
Replacement
Creating artificial ecosystems

61. We Can Rehabilitate and Restore Ecosystems That We Have Damaged (2)
How to carry out most forms of ecological restoration and rehabilitation
Identify what caused the degradation
Stop the abuse
Reintroduce species, if possible
Protect from further degradation

62. Case Study: Wetland Mitigation Banking
Wetlands are protected
Permits to build on wetlands usually require wetland mitigation