1. Chapter 7 - Rationalism A History of Psychology:
Ideas and Context (4th edition)
D. Brett King, Wayne Viney, and
William Douglas Woody
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2. Rationalism
René Descartes and others answered the challenge of Montaigne’s skepticism through rationalism.
“Rationalism” is derived from the Latin “ratio” meaning to reason.
Rationalism may be differentiated from Empiricism in three primary ways.
Rationalism emphasizes a priori knowledge.
Rationalists most often postulate an active mind that acts upon incoming sensory information.
Rationalists emphasize deductive arguments, using logic to demonstrate that the premises of an argument provide definitive grounds for the conclusion.
Francis Bacon and René Descartes answered the challenge of Montaigne’s skepticism (see Chapter 5). Bacon and Descartes attempted to justify human knowledge through empiricism and rationalism.
Lecture Outline for Chapter 7 - Rationalism
The term “rationalism” is derived from the Latin “ratio” meaning to reason.
Rationalism as a philosophical movement may be differentiated from Empiricism (see Chapter 6) in three primary ways.
Rationalism emphasizes a priori knowledge.
Rationalists most often postulate an active mind that acts upon incoming sensory information.
Rationalists emphasize deductive arguments, using logic to demonstrate that the premises of an argument provide definitive grounds for the conclusion.
Empiricists more often use inductive arguments to demonstrate that the conclusion is more likely than not, given the premises.

3. René Descartes
René Descartes applied his mathematical approach to philosophy in his development of a rational system.
Descartes imported his mathematical method as he pushed the limits of his ability to doubt.
The four parts of his method are as follows.
Never accept anything as true unless it is clear, distinct, and immune from doubt.
Divide all difficulties into as many parts as possible.
Start with the easiest and simplest elements and then proceed to the complex.
Keep complete notes and comprehensive reviews so nothing is omitted.
Descartes started with doubt.
He could not, however, doubt that he was doubting.
He maintained that because he was doubting he was thinking, and
because he was thinking he was existing
Therefore, he concluded, “I think, therefore I am.”
After establishing his own existence, he accepted clear and distinct sense experience, and then he can proceed to rely on his experience in his research.
Descartes postulated a non-extended mind that is qualitatively different from the physical body.
René Descartes applied his mathematical approach to philosophy in his development of a rational system.
Descartes imported his mathematical method as he pushed the limits of his ability to doubt. The four parts of his method are as follows.
Never accept anything as true unless it is clear, distinct, and immune from doubt.
Divide all difficulties into as many parts as possible.
Start with the easiest and simplest elements and then proceed to the complex.
Keep complete notes and comprehensive reviews so nothing is omitted.
Descartes started with Montaigne’s skepticism and doubted. While Descartes doubted everything, he could not doubt that he was doubting. He maintained that because he was doubting he was thinking, and because he was thinking he was existing. Here he makes his famous statement, “I think, therefore I am.”
After establishing his own existence, he accepts clear and distinct sense experience, and then he can proceed to rely on his experience in his research.
Descartes postulated a non-extended mind that is qualitatively different from the physical body (see Chapter 8).

4. Baruch Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza faced extreme social, political, religious, and personal pressure to change his views but did not.
Spinoza argued for a monistic pantheism.
There is only one substance, God.
Descartes had presented qualitative distinctions between mind and body, sacred and secular, and humans and animals.
Spinoza challenged Descartes’s dualisms, particularly the means by which qualitatively different substances such as mind and body
Baruch Spinoza’s uncompromising dedication to his work is legendary. Excommunicated by Christians and Jews alike, he refused offers of academic positions and financial support if those offers required him to limit his views. He ground lenses to make a modest living until he died at a young age from a condition related to the buildup of glass dust in his lungs.
Descartes presented qualitative distinctions between mind and body, between sacred and secular, and between humans and animals.
Spinoza challenged Descartes’s dualisms, particularly the means by which qualitatively different substances such as mind and body interact, and argued for a monistic pantheism; there is only one substance, and it is God.

5. Baruch Spinoza Spinoza advocated double-aspect monism.
Even if humans use different languages to discuss the mental and physical worlds, the mental and physical are only two aspects of the same reality, God.
These two aspects of humans move in response to natural laws.
There is no room for free will.
Spinoza’s thoroughgoing monism prohibits powers separate from God.
Therefore, he denied the existence of demons.
Spinoza may have helped challenge the intellectual foundation of the inquisition.
Spinoza advocated double-aspect monism. Even if humans use different languages to discuss the mental and physical worlds, the mental and physical are only two aspects of the same reality, God.
For Spinoza, the two aspects of humans move in response to natural laws, and there is no room for free will.
Spinoza’s thoroughgoing monism prohibits powers separate from God, and therefore denies the existence of demons. In this way, Spinoza may have helped challenge the intellectual foundation of the inquisition (see Chapter 9).

6. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a brilliant mathematician and diplomat, and he also struggled with Descartes’s dualism and the requirement of mind-body interaction.
Leibniz proposed a monadology.
This was a system in which indivisible units of existence (monads) moved in parallel in a preestablished harmony without interacting.
Though modads do not interact with one each other, they may combine in experience.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a brilliant mathematician and diplomat, and he also struggled with Descartes’s dualism and the requirement of mind-body interaction.
Leibniz proposed a monadology, a system in which indivisible units of existence (monads) moved in parallel in a preestablished harmony without interacting. Mind and body function like two clocks on a wall; they are in harmony without influencing one another.
Though modads do not interact with one each other, they may summate in experience. Thus, in a storm, we are not aware of the sound of each individual raindrop, but these petites perceptions can add in experience to form the complex stimulus that we hear.

7. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
For Leibniz, the mind is an active force in manipulating sensory input.
Leibniz argued for uniformitarianism.
He claimed that change is gradual and takes place over long periods of time.
For Leibniz, the mind is an active force in manipulating sensory input, and thinking activity has its own career beyond sense data.
Leibniz argued for uniformitarianism; he claimed that change is gradual and takes place over long periods of time.

8. Christian von Wolff Christian von Wolff extended the work of Leibniz.
Wolff was one of the first to use “psychology” in a publication.
Christian von Wolff extended the work of Leibniz and was one of the first to use “psychology” in a publication.

9. Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant sought a middle ground between empiricism and rationalism.
Kant distinguished between analytic a priori statements that are tautologies and synthetic a priori statements that contain new information about the world.
Kant believed that knowledge begins with sensory experience.
But, the mind uses innate categories of understanding to make our experience intelligible.
Kant provides a basic social psychology.
He argued that humans are caught in the tension between heteronomy (government from the outside) and autonomy (self-government).
Self-government plays a role in our ability to act in a moral manner.
Immanuel Kant sought a middle ground between empiricism and rationalism.
Kant distinguished between analytic a priori statements that are tautologies and synthetic a priori statements that contain new information about the world.
Kant believed that knowledge begins with sensory experience but that the mind uses innate categories of understanding to make our experience intelligible.
Kant provides a basic social psychology, arguing that humans are caught in the tension between heteronomy (government from the outside) and autonomy (self-government). Self-government plays a role in our ability to act in a moral manner.

10. Johann Friedrich Herbart
Johann Friedrich Herbart took a psychological approach to educational problems.
He attempted to quantify phenomena in psychology.
Herbart studied apperception, mental operations more complex than sense perception,.
He claimed that the goal of education was to build the apperceptive mass.
Education, for Herbart, must also be moral education.
Johann Friedrich Herbart took a psychological approach to educational problems and attempts to quantify phenomena in psychology.
Herbart studied apperception, mental operations more complex than sense perception, and he claimed that the goal of education was to build the apperceptive mass. Education, for Herbart, must also be moral education.

11. Thomas Reid Thomas Reid advocated common sense philosophy.
He rejected any philosophical positions that were counter-intuitive or did violence to human experience of the world.
He was frustrated with the counter-intuitive claims of Berkeley and Hume.
Reid argued for first principles, propositions that could not be doubted without violating common sense.
For example, one first principle requires the belief in the external world.
Thomas Reid advocated common sense philosophy. He rejected any philosophical positions that were counter-intuitive or did violence to human experience of the world. He was frustrated with the counter-intuitive claims of Berkeley and Hume.
Reid argued for first principles, propositions that could not be doubted without violating common sense. For example, one first principle requires the belief in the external world.

12. More Legacies
The rationalists and the empiricists disagreed in several ways, but
They both acknowledged the importance of enfranchising curiosity and letting inquiry run its course.
Despite Biblical and authoritative injunctions against curiosity, Bacon, Descartes, and others found theological and natural supports for allowing human curiosity to run unchecked.
While the rationalists and the empiricists disagreed in several ways, they acknowledged the importance of enfranchising curiosity and letting inquiry run its course. Despite Biblical and authoritative injunctions against curiosity, Bacon and others found theological and natural supports for allowing human curiosity to run unchecked.