1. PowerPoint Image Slideshow
Psychology
Chapter 8 MEMORY
PowerPoint Image Slideshow

2. Chapter Topics Acquisition, Storage, Retrieval Acquisition Storage
Memory Gaps, Memory Errors
Varieties of Memory

3. Chapter Topics
Some Final Thoughts: Different Types, But Common Principles
Summary

4. Figure 8.1
Photographs can trigger our memories and bring past experiences back to life. (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)

5. Acquisition, Storage, Retrieval (very simple)
Remembering begins with acquisition.
gathering information and placing it into memory
The next aspect of memory is storage.
holding information for later use
The final phase is retrieval.
draw information from storage and use it
- The act of remembering requires success in three phases of the memory process: acquisition, storage, and retrieval (either through recognition or through recall). Retrieval can take two forms: recall and recognition.

6. How Do People Create a Memory?
Memories become memories through the work of several parts of the brain working together to tie things together.
This starts with our brain and the brains interpretation of sensory information from the seven senses which are…

7. Memories
As a person move through life they are bombarded with sensory information.
They have to make sense of this information.
Sensory info includes sight, touch, taste, hearing, smell, vestibular (through the inner ear and control balance and eye movement), and proprioceptive (movement nd body position).

8. Understand Sensory Info
To understand the sensory info, our brain inputs this data, and then has to process this data.
To process this data, the brain searches it’s knowledge banks for where it may have seen the info before. The brain does this to make sense of the info and to make understanding fast and simple.

9. The Brain
While this is going on, the brain is working to manage these sensory cues.
The brain tries to focus on 3-5 things. To do this it inhibits sensory info it believes is unnecessary to pay attention to this new info. This means the brain inhibits (stops) competing information, selectively attends to what is considers important, and remains vigilant to changes in the environment (to shift focus, or “sets”, as needed).

10. Does this make sense?

11. Figure 8.4
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory, information passes through three distinct stages in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.

12. Decode As the brain is searching it is decoding.
Decoding refers to analyzing the info, making sense of it from past data, so the brain can understand the meaning.
Please keep in mind the brain is filtering through its own biases and processing deficits.
Also the past memories are deeply associated to sense it is attached to, such as fear in PTSD.

13. Encoding
If the brain is not able to make sense of something, the brain will start the process of making a new memory.
Encoding allows the brain to do this. Encoding means the brain gives the new information a name, or a meaning. This allows the brain to learn, store the new info, and thus use the info later (retrieve).

14. Encoding and Retrieval
Memory can easily fade.
Memory is subject to suggestion and priming.
Memories are created.

15. Figure 8.5
The Stroop effect describes why it is difficult for us to name a color when the word and the color of the word are different.

16. Figure 8.6
Work through this series of numbers using the recall exercise explained above to determine the longest string of digits that you can store.

17. The Fiction of Memory

18. Different Types of Memory
Short term.
Working Memory.
Long term.

19. Short term Memory
The short term memory holds info for a brief period, literally just seconds, in order to use the info a short period.
From there the information can be held in working memory or lost.

20. Working Memory
This is your brain’s notepad. The working memory allows you to plan, prioritize, and organize your time.
This is referred to as the central executive.
You have a visual, verbal (semantic), and spatial working memory.
You can hold 3-5 things, or 3-5 chunks of data here.

21. Working Memory
Working memory helps you decide what to keep and put in the long term memory, or what to discard.
WM has a buffering mechanism that allows you to hold info, and a comprehensive coordinator (what is held, what is acted upon, what is discarded.).
Review

22. Long Term Memory
Long term memory is an unlimited storage area consisting of several task-specific systems.
Explicit (declarative) memories are instances or facts that are recalled. These are facts, what is known as group norms, or facts that are unique to you (your autobiography).

23. Figure 8.7
There are two components of long-term memory: explicit and implicit. Explicit memory includes episodic and semantic memory. Implicit memory includes procedural memory and things learned through conditioning.

24. Long term Memory LTM also holds implicit memories.
These are skill sets that have been learned, practiced, and then recalled or retrieved as a result of this practice.
These skills may be motor maps designed due to repeated physical use, techniques acquired through learning and practice, and daily objectives.

25. Increasing Memory Primacy effects
Early items receive more rehearsal and are more likely to be transferred to long-term storage.
Recency effects
Just-heard items can be retrieved directly from working memory.
Rehearsal may keep an item in working memory long enough for it to undergo such a transfer.
Items that have just been encountered, such as the last few words on a list just heard, are likely to still be in working memory and can easily be retrieved.
This easy retrieval makes it quite likely that these words will be recalled, producing a memory advantage called the recency effect.
In contrast, items from the beginning of a list just heard must be retrieved from long-term memory. However, because these items were at the beginning of the list, the person hearing the list has had a greater opportunity to attend to these items. This makes it more likely that the items will have been established in long-term memory, producing a memory advantage called the primacy effect.

26. Processing for Memory Understanding promotes memory
How well someone remembers will depend on the depth at which he or she processed the information.
shallow processing: encoding that emphasizes superficial characteristics
deep processing: encoding that emphasizes meaning
Some forms of engagement are more effective than others at facilitating later recall. Specifically, deep processing (e.g., involving meaning) leads to better recall than shallow processing (e.g., involving surface form).
This is why we remember best what we have understood best.
Attention-to-meaning helps us to find and establish memory connections that can later guide us back to the to-be-remembered material.

27. Processing for Memory
We remember best the material that we’ve understood.
Memory connections link one memory to the next.
At the time of recall, these connections serve as retrieval paths.

28. Mnemonics
Mnemonics
help a person form memory connections that can dramatically improve memory
Many mnemonics utilize imagery.
This is most helpful if the visualized items are imagined as linked to each other.
This emphasis on connections also helps us to understand why memory-improving techniques called mnemonics are so effective: these techniques help us to create strong and distinctive connections leading to the target materials.
However, these techniques may be of limited usefulness in many circumstances, because they create only a narrow set of retrieval paths, making the retrieval less flexible than one might wish.
In summary, the modern conception of working memory is more like a workbench, where information is chunked, organized, and linked, than like early theorists’ image of working memory as a loading dock through which memories are passively transferred into the long-term memory warehouse.

29. Improving Working Memory
Thursday

30. Figure 8.8
Marilu Henner’s super autobiographical memory is known as hyperthymesia. (credit: Mark Richardson)

31. Figure 8.9
The amygdala is involved in fear and fear memories. The hippocampus is associated with declarative and episodic memory as well as recognition memory. The cerebellum plays a role in processing procedural memories, such as how to play the piano. The prefrontal cortex appears to be involved in remembering semantic tasks.

32. Memory Consolidation
Establishment of a long-term memory depends on memory consolidation.
New connections are formed among neurons.
Need for consolidation is reflected in cases in which this has been disrupted
retrograde amnesia

33. Retrieval Retrieval of memories:
usually easy but can fail, either completely or partially (tip-of- the-tongue effect)
promoted by retrieval cues
Cues are useful if they re-create the context in which the original learning occurred.
Context reinstatement allows the person to use retrieval paths.
Remembering depends, not just on acquisition and storage, but also on retrieval.
Some episodes of apparent memory failure are due to retrieval failure rather than memory decay or loss, as demonstrated by the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
Adequate retrieval depends on the presence of retrieval cues.
The most effective retrieval cues seem to take advantage of connections that were established during learning, connections that then serve as retrieval paths.
Thus, memory is better to the extent that the mental context during learning can be reinstated during retrieval.
Research participants who learn a list of words in a specific room, for instance, recall them better if they can be in the same room during testing, or if they imagine themselves to be in the same room.
This demonstrates that what is stored in memory is a record of the event as understood from a particular perspective within a particular context, a principle known as encoding specificity

34. Memory Gaps and Errors
Many cases of forgetting can be understood as the result of inadequate encoding.
Data from fMRI scans collected during encoding show different patterns for later-remembered material and later- forgotten material.
Memory failures have many causes, including inadequate encoding, changes to memory storage, and faulty retrieval.
Generally, failure increases as the retention interval between learning and trying to remember increases.
What accounts for this relation? The text considers two possible factors: (1) decay, presumably due to some normal metabolic process; and (2) interference, in which new learning hampers the recall of previously learned items. Both these factors seem to account for forgetting; although the effect of new learning appears to be larger.

35. Figure 8.10
Most people can remember where they were when they first heard about the 9/11 terrorist attacks. This is an example of a flashbulb memory: a record of an atypical and unusual event that has very strong emotional associations. (credit: Michael Foran)

36. Disorders of Memory https://youtu.be/7mvx-mAUJL8
dementia

37. Disorders of Memory https://youtu.be/LL_Gq7Shc-Y Alzheimers
Mayo Clinic states,”although Alzheimer’s accounts for 60-70% of cases of dementia, other disorders that cause dementia are: Vascular dementia, Parkinson’s disease, dementia with Lewy Bodies and Frontotemperol dementia.”

38. Dementia
Dementia is a group of symptoms that affect factors such as memory and reasoning. It is not a disease.
Alzheimer’s disease is one cause.

39. Repeated Head Trauma
NFL League of Denial

40. Intrusion Errors Interference can also result from mixing memories.
misinformation effect
It can be the result of schematic knowledge intruding into memory of a particular event.
Events are usually understood (and remembered) with reference to schemas.
Consider cases of memory failure related to the intrusion of new and sometimes false information in previously stored memories.
Some intrusion errors involve misinformation learned after an event was encoded and then incorporated into the memory for that event, leading to inaccurate and even false memories.
Other intrusion errors may be caused by the blurring together of the recollection of a specific episode with broader knowledge about episodes of that type.
More specifically, memory is strongly affected by an individual’s conceptual framework (or schemas); details that do not fit that framework are sometimes forgotten, and common elements that were not present in the specific episode may be inaccurately added to the memory.

41. Avoiding Memory Errors
Psychologists have searched unsuccessfully for ways of distinguishing correct memories from mistaken ones.
Confidence expressed by the person remembering has little value.
Hypnosis also does nothing to improve memory.
can actually increase the risk of memory error
Hypnosis, a supposed memory-improving technique, can lead to impressively detailed reports of events that turn out to be false.
Sedative drugs believed to improve memory, like sodium amytal, also appear to have little true benefit: they put people in a relaxed state that makes it more difficult to discriminate remembered facts from remembered fiction.
Memory errors seem unavoidable: even relying on one’s subjective assessment of the accuracy of different memories turns out to be a weak strategy.
Although memory errors are inevitable, the mechanisms that lead to memory errors are helpful most of the time, creating the connections of memory that make it possible to store, retrieve, and integrate our knowledge efficiently.

42. Varieties of Memory Several types of memory
Episodic memories concern specific episodes.
Semantic memories concern broader knowledge, not tied to a particular episode.
Explicit memories are consciously recalled.
Implicit memories are not consciously recalled but can be indirectly tested.
Memory is not a single process, but rather can be conceptualized as a hierarchy of types.
A critical distinction is between explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory.
Explicit memory can be further subdivided into episodic memory, or memory for specific events, and generic (or semantic) memory, which contains knowledge not tied to any particular time or place.
Episodic and generic memory are supported by different brain areas, and brain damage can disrupt one type of memory but spare the other.
Disruptions to generic memory can be surprisingly specific, suggesting that generic memory can be subdivided into many components supported by distinct brain regions.

43. Figure 8.13
When people are asked leading questions about an event, their memory of the event may be altered. (credit a: modification of work by Rob Young)

44. Figure 8.15
The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve shows how quickly memory for new information decays.

45. Figure 8.17
Many veterans of military conflicts involuntarily recall unwanted, unpleasant memories. (credit: Department of Defense photo by U.S. Air Force Tech. Sgt. Michael R. Holzworth)

46. Figure 8.18
Sometimes forgetting is caused by a failure to retrieve information. This can be due to interference, either retroactive or proactive.

47. Figure 8.19
This is a knuckle mnemonic to help you remember the number of days in each month. Months with 31days are represented by the protruding knuckles and shorter months fall in the spots between knuckles. (credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker)

48. Figure 8.20
Memory techniques can be useful when studying for class. (credit: Barry Pousman)

49. 8.20 Hierarchy of memory types

50. Flashbulb Memories Some theorists subdivide episodic memory.
They distinguish autobiographical memories from memories for other episodes,
and place flashbulb memories or traumatic memories into their own category.
Some theorists suggest that episodic memories have special subtypes, including autobiographical memories and the vivid “flashbulb” memories that we often have for events that are highly distinctive, unexpected, and emotional.
Although flashbulb memories seem remarkable, the text argues that they are likely not a special form of memory.
Emotional episodes seem to be remembered more vividly, completely, and accurately for many reasons: we pay more attention to emotional events (encoding), we are more likely to think them over afterward (rehearsal), emotional events have many connections to other issues and people we care about (storage and retrieval), and certain biological changes accompanying emotions may facilitate memory consolidation. These processes, particularly rehearsal, probably account for flashbulb memories.
Tramautic events are usually well-remembered; however, in some cases, individuals seem to have little to no recall of a traumatic event.
The text argues against the notion that traumatic memories are repressed; “recovered” memories may simply be ones that lacked effective retrieval cues.
It is also possible that “recovered” memories in the context of psychotherapy may be the product of a therapist’s guidance and the client’s imagination.

51. Final Thoughts
The link between memory and perception is that both try to inform us about “reality.”
Perceiving, learning, memory, and thinking are tied tightly together.

52. This PowerPoint file is copyright 2014-2015, Rice University
This PowerPoint file is copyright , Rice University. All Rights Reserved.