1. Some more on orthographic change
Which period of English are we studying?
We will need to be aware of conventions that predate the C18, as some of the features you will have to tackle in the exam will be throwbacks to pre-C18 standards and conventions.

2. Make notes on the following, and then get ready for a quick test...
As we saw recently, in the early C18 there was still legitimate debate about something as apparently simple as the number of letters in the English alphabet (in 1726, the “common computation” was 24 letters).
However, when Dr. Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language in 1755, 26 letters were covered.

3. Middle English Period
Middle English: early C12 to mid-C15 (or, 1100s to 1400s).
By the beginning of C15, English was a mix of Old English and French; during the Renaissance (C14-C17; 1300s – 1600s) thousands of words were coined and/or borrowed from Latin.
This reflected how scientifically and culturally innovative this period was.
Because of the Norman (or French) influence, it is sometimes hard to distinguish Latinate words that have entered the language via French, and words which have entered the language directly via Latin.

4. Norman/French Influence (1)
During the Middle English period, French orthographic conventions were introduced.
For example, qw replaced cw: cwen becomes queen;
gh replaces h (e.g., night);
ch for c (as in church);
c is now placed before e instead of an s, and takes on the “s” sound – e.g., cercle (“circle”) and cell.

5. CK1 C originally represented a hard “g” (as in “gamma”).
It then became a plosive “k” sound.
During Middle English period, c takes on all the varieties we know today – Ch, s, K, sh.

6. C vs. K
K introduced during the Middle English period to distinguish it from c and its variants.
K is from the Greek alphabet originally, and then the Latin; however, it is not often used in Latin, which prefers c and q.
K introduced as plosive sound; it is not usually doubled (-ck usually comes after short vowel sounds). However, there are some inconsistencies – e.g., lick/public – as well as American/British variations – check/cheque; skeptic/sceptic.

7. Further changes in the Middle English Period, due to the Norman/French influence:
Ou introduced for u (“ow” as in house);
o also replaces u in certain words, because of difficulty of reading words with strings of u m n v (all made up of minims);
k and z increasingly used;
j used because visually distinct from i (phonetically, though, they are interchangeable at this point);
u and v also interchangeable phonetically, but v used initially (e.g., vnder), and u medially (e.g., haue).

8. Early Modern Period Caxton’s printing press (late C15)
helps with standardization of printed written language, although his own productions contain numerous inconsistencies:
booke and boke;
axyd and axed).
Rules over final –e and doubled letters not established (e.g., hadde, wel, whiche).
Other printers have similar variations & inconsistencies: “fellow” appears as fellow, felowe, fallow, fallowe, amongst other forms.

9. Printing Practices in late C15/early C16
Sometimes such inconsistencies were a matter of simple inconsistency/lack of standardization; sometimes, they were to do with creating visual neatness (e.g., of justifying the ends of written lines).

10. C16 & Early C17 In the C16, i and j become phonetically distinct.
Later C16: the work of educators like Richard Mulcaster (author of Elementarie [1582]) further contributes to standardization of printed written English
Manuscript (hand-written) practices take longer to settle, however.

11. Later C16 & Early C17
Regularization of double vowel convention to mark “long” vowel sounds (e.g., soon);
silent “e” also marks long vowel sounds (“split digraph”) – e.g. “name”, “sit”/“site”;
double consonants mark short preceding vowels – e.g., “sitting”/ “citing.”
These rules are still not consistently applied to word endings, however – glad, well, glasse.
In 1630s, u and v become phonetically distinct, as they are today.

12. Quick Quiz Which period of English are we studying?
Why do we need to be aware of pre-C18 conventions?

13. When did Dr. Johnson publish his dictionary?
1755
How many letters were covered? 26

14. Middle English Period When was the Middle English Period?
Early C12 to mid-C15 (or, 1100s to 1400s).
Which language dominated “English” at the beginning of the Middle English period?
Old English and French
During which period were thousands of Latin/Latinate words coined/borrowed?
The Renaissance (C14-C17; 1300s – 1600s)

15. Norman/French Influence (1)
Can you list some of the French orthographic conventions that were introduced during the Middle English period?
qw replaced cw: cwen becomes queen;
gh replaces h (e.g., night);
ch for c (as in church);
c is now placed before e instead of an s, and takes on the “s” sound – e.g., cercle (“circle”) and cell.

16. CK1 C originally represented... a hard “g” (as in “gamma”).
It then became a...
plosive “k” sound.
During Middle English period, c takes on all the varieties we know today – Ch, s, K, sh. Can you list some examples of each?

17. C vs. K
K introduced during the Middle English period to distinguish it from c and its variants.
K is from which alphabets?
The Greek alphabet originally, and then the Latin; however, it is not often used in Latin, which prefers c and q.
K introduced as plosive sound; it is not usually doubled (-ck usually comes after short vowel sounds). However, there are some inconsistencies, such as...
lick/public – as well as American/British variations – check/cheque; skeptic/sceptic.

18. v used initially (e.g., vnder), and u medially (e.g., haue).
Further changes in the Middle English Period, due to the Norman/French influence:
In this period, u and v are interchangeable phonetically, but when/where are they used?
v used initially (e.g., vnder), and u medially (e.g., haue).

19. Printing Practices in late C15/early C16
What were the reasons for printers’ inconsistencies in the late C15/early C16?
Simple inconsistency/lack of standardization;
visual neatness (e.g., of justifying the ends of written lines).

20. i and j become phonetically distinct in...
C16 (approx. 1520s)

21. Later C16 & Early C17 A split digraph is...
2 vowels, separated by consonants, but which represent a single vowel sound – e.g. a and e in date
Which conventions were regularized in the late C16/early C17?
Double vowel convention to mark “long” vowel sounds (e.g., soon);
silent “e” also marks long vowel sounds (“split digraph”) – e.g. “name”, “sit”/“site”;
double consonants mark short preceding vowels – e.g., “sitting”/ “citing.”
u and v become phonetically distinct, as they are today, in...
1630s