1. Reliability and validity
Final parts to our Research…

2. SO… We had an idea, a theory say…
We came up with an aim, but our aim is vague…
So we make a hypothesis, this can be tested!
Being really smart we could predict what way our findings may go and make a one-tailed hypothesis, e.g. that chocolate will help us remember more words in a memory test – one tailed.

3. WE HAVE TO DECIDE…
What are our variables, our IV and DV, what can mess it all up, darn EVs…
Are we going to do a lab experiment, questionnaire, observation etc?
Are we going to use an independent groups design, matched pairs design or repeated measures design? How much time and money do we have?
Is there anything impacting our results? Order effects?

4. CAN WE SAY…
Is what we find out fact or fiction – has something else caused the results?
Lets publish our findings and see what our peers have to say…
Send it all off to a peer reviewed journal…
Sit back and wait…

5. THERE’S THE POST…

6. RELIABILITY
The term reliability in psychology refers to the consistency of a research study or measuring test.
If findings from research are replicated consistently they are said to be reliable.

7. TWO TYPES… Internal and External Reliability:
Internal reliability is consistency within a test, all parts measure the same thing
External validity refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to another, so similar findings found in Sweden, China and Timbuktu…

8. VALIDITY
Kelly (1927, p. 14) stated that a test is valid if it measures what it claims to measure.
A test of intelligence should measure intelligence and nothing else.
If you can say your results were caused by manipulating your IV, and not something else, then it has internal validity. Controlling Evs helps with this.

9. VALIDITY
External Validity is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity).
Can be improved by doing experiments in a more natural setting (Hofling instead of Milgram for obedience).

10. Unit 2 Assignment 1 Worksheet and Analysis
What You Need to Know…

11. Please make a note of these…
For easiest online reading, use Arial 12- point size.
For easiest print reading, use Garamond 12-point size.
Double-line space your work. NEVER single.
Number your pages. ALWAYS.
Put your Name and Student Number in the Header/Footer.

12. Please make a note of these…
Use headings and sub-headings! Do not make me guess what part of the question you are answering. Sign-post your work!
A reference list is all the citations you have put in the main body of your work – for example: Evans (2016), Evans (2017)
Put references in alphabetical order

13. Please make a note of these…
A bibliography is all the books, journals and websites you may have read or glanced at, but have not taken actual work or ideas from – alphabetical order too!
Bibliographies are LEFT ALIGNED TOO!
You will not/can not write an essay at level 3 WITHOUT using other academics’ writing! A page of references at least!

14. Please make a note of these…
Quotes should be inside quotation marks and page numbers should added in the citation, if from a book or journal ~
e.g. Evans stated that: ‘please format properly’ (2017, p666)
or ‘please format properly’ (Evans, 2017, p666)
or Evans (2017) says ‘please format properly’ (p666)

15. WORD COUNT is 1000…
Your work should always have an introduction at the start Introduce the topic, set the scene…
It then has a main body which is where you make your main points…
It should be finished with a conclusion, pull it all together. What has been found, what is your final thoughts on this topic...

16. DO NOT REPEAT YOURSELF…
If you have said it once, do not say it again. That is waffling.
Fill in all aspects of the FRONT SHEET or it will be returned to you!
Drafts are accepted, but I will not tell you what to write or what grade it deserves.
Drafts will only be accepted up until the 21st March 2017.

17. READ THE BRIEF… Read what its says.
A table? Produce a table. What is the operating word?
Identify? Probably not! That’s a level 1 word…
Describe? Doubt it, that is level 2…
Evaluate, analyse? More likely! They are level 3 operating words.
Find out what the operating word means – look at class posters!

18. GO A BIT FURTHER…ALWAYS
If your question asks for two examples, give three. Show your skills. Watch the word count though, do not be brief in your response just to get more examples in.
Be concise and succinct. Every word counts.
Craft your writing. Use a thesaurus, use some different words. Do not write how you speak. Write for a reader. Very different!
NO CONTRACTIONS.

19. FINALLY…
Read it out loud. Does it make sense? Can a member of your adult family understand what you have written?
Proof read, spell and grammar check it, proof read again and then again.
You will hate the thing by time you finish…I always do…

20. THESE INSTRUCTIONS ARE FOR MY ESSAYS…
QUESTIONS?

21. Unit 2 Methods ~ Ethics
How to Research Well!

22. ETHICS AND RESEARCHERS
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying out research.
We have a moral responsibility to protect research participants from harm.
No matter how important the issue under investigation is, psychologists must remember that they have a duty to respect the rights and dignity of research participants.
This means that they must abide by certain moral principles and rules of conduct.
Objectives for instruction and expected results and/or skills developed from learning.

23. BRITAIN V AMERICA
In Britain these guidelines are published by the BPS, the British Psychological Society – when you graduate you can join.
In America they are published by the APA, the American Psychological Association.
These codes of conduct protect research participants, the reputation of psychology and psychologists themselves.
Relative vocabulary list.

24. ALL RESEARCH…
All psychological research must undergo an extensive review by an ethics committee in the UK before they are carried out.
All UK research requires ethical approval.
Coleg Llandrillo has an ethics committee, so does Bangor University - many actually!
Sometimes you have to apply to multiple ethics panels – very, very time consuming. Every change has to be done and reviewed before you get the go ahead.

25. ETHICS PANEL SAYS…NO
It could be the words you use, the font size, the rewards you were going to give them, the instructions they would read, the location you were going to do your study – it could be ANYTHING!
In extreme cases they could deny approval of the study altogether.

26. ETHICAL ISSUES
Some of the most important ethical issues identified by the BPS and APA include:
Informed Consent
Debrief
Protection of Participants Deception
Confidentiality
Right to Withdraw from an Investigation

27. INFORMED CONSENT Participants should give informed consent.
Those involving children, informed parental consent should be obtained.
Payment should not be used to induce risk taking behaviour.
Special safeguarding procedures are necessary with subjects with limitations in communication or understanding or where unable to give real consent.
Participants should give informed consent.
In studies involving children, informed parental consent should be obtained.
Payment should not be used to induce risk taking behaviour.
Special safeguarding procedures are necessary with subjects with limitations in communication or understanding or where unable to give real consent.
A list of procedures and steps, or a lecture slide with media.

28. DECEPTION
Intentional deception over the purpose of the investigation should be avoided where possible.
There must be strong medical or scientific justification for any deception.
Appropriate consultation with ethics committees must precede the investigation if it involves deception.
A list of procedures and steps, or a lecture slide with media.

29. CONFIDENTIALITY
The source of all information should remain confidential.
Legislation, including the Data Protection Act, should be adhered to.
If confidentiality cannot be guaranteed, the subject should be duly warned.
A list of procedures and steps, or a lecture slide with media.

30. DEBRIEFING Participants should be fully debriefed.
Participants’ experience should be discussed to assess any negative effects.
Debriefing should be in the form of active intervention before leaving the research setting.
A list of procedures and steps, or a lecture slide with media.

31. WITHDRAWAL FROM THE INVESTIGATION
Subjects should be aware of the right to withdraw at any time.
This may be done retrospectively by refusing permission for their data to be used.
A list of procedures and steps, or a lecture slide with media.

32. PROTECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
Participants should be protected from physical or mental harm.
Participants should be asked of any factors which may create risk; i.e. medical conditions.
Any risk should be no more than could be expected in the course of normal daily lifestyle.
There should be the opportunity to contact the investigator at a later date if distress does occur.

33. ETHICS…
CAN DO, CAN’T DO WITH PARTICIPANTS Consent Deception Confidentiality Debriefing Withdrawal Participants