1. 2nd Language Learning
Chapter 2
Lecture 4

2. 2nd Language Learners
All 2nd language learners have already acquired one language. Therefore…
Some researchers believe that this is an advantage, because with that 2nd language learners will already have an idea on how languages work.
Other researchers believe that having knowledge of another language may lead 2nd language learners to make incorrect guesses on how the 2nd language works.

3. Differences between children & adults in learning a language
Differences between children and adults in learning a language can be summarized in 3 main points:
Cognitive differences.
Children do not have the cognitive maturity and metalinguistic awareness that adults have.
This cognitive ability allows adults to engage in discussions about languages. Whereas children do not have this ability.
Cognitive maturity: The ability to engage in problem-solving, deduction, and complex memory tasks.
Metalinguistic awareness: The ability to treat language as an object.

4. Differences between children & adults in learning a language
2. Attitudinal and cultural differences:
Most children language learners are willing to try to use the language even if their proficiency level is quite low.
- They are allowed to be silent until ready to speak.
They mostly practice language through songs and games and with that their voices are blended with others.
Adults are reluctant when trying to use the language. They also find it stressful when they are unable to express themselves correctly.

5. Differences between children & adults in learning a language
3. Time in contact with language:
Children spend hours in contact with their first language.
They are also exposed to the language in other social
settings other than the home, for example the playground,
the classroom and even the television.
- Exposed to a large range of discourse type.
Adults receive far less exposure to the language. Their
exposure is only limited to the language classes they take.
Exposed to a smaller range of discourse type. Usually
formal discourse.

6. Differences between children & adults in language learning
There is one similarity between all language learners regardless of age (adults & children) which is, exposure to modified or adapted speech.
Similar to child-directed speech (last lecture), there is foreigner talk.
Foreigner talk: modified or simplified language that native speakers address to 2nd language learners.

7. Studying the language of 2nd language learners
We have seen in Ch. 1 that there are developmental sequences for children who are learning a language.
Is this the same for 2nd language learners?
Does their 1st language affect the acquisition of their 2nd language?
Researchers started to observe the errors of 2nd language learners in order to determine their progress. For example, the less the errors are the better the progress. However, this is not a satisfactory explanation.

8. Studying the language of 2nd language learners
The reason for that is because sometimes an increase in an error can be a sign of progress.
For example, 2nd language learners usually learn the irregular past tense forms of common verbs before they learn to apply the regular past –ed marker.

9. Studying the language of 2nd language learners
Meaning a learner who says “I buyed a bus ticket” may know more about English than one who says “I bought a bus ticket”.
We cannot conclude that the one who says (bought) would use the regular past –ed marker where it is required. However, the learner who says (buyed) provides evidence of the knowledge of a systematic aspect of English.

10. Studying the language of 2nd language learners
From the previous example, we go into details about approaches invented by researchers to study the errors of language learners.
These approaches are:
1. Contrastive analysis (CA)
2. Error analysis
3. Interlanguage

11. Contrastive analysis Contrastive analysis hypothesis:
Errors are assumed to be results of transfer
from the learner’s 1st language.
Transfer/Interference:
The influence of a learner’s 1st language knowledge in the 2nd language.
(It is now preferred to be called ‘Cross-linguistic influence’.)

12. Contrastive analysis
However, detailed analysis of language learners’ errors could not always be explained by this theory.
For ex, according to the CAH, French speakers learning English and English speakers learning French would make errors on parallel linguistic features. However, that was not the case.

13. Contrastive analysis For ex,
In simple English sentences, direct objects whether nouns or pronouns come after the verb. (The dog eats the cookie) `
In French, direct objects that are nouns follow the verb. (The dog eats the cookie)
However, direct objects that are pronouns precede the verb. (The dog it eats)
According to your understanding of CAH, how would the errors of speakers of these languages be explained?

14. Contrastive analysis
The CAH would predict that a native speaker of French might say (the dog it eats) when learning English.
After analyzing their speech, however, it was found that French-speaking learners of English, seeing no evidence that English direct object pronouns precede verbs, do not use this pattern from their 1st language.

15. Error analysis
Because many aspects of learners’ language couldn’t be explained by the CAH, a different approach was taken- error analysis.
Error analysis: is detailed descriptions of the errors 2nd language learners make.
It divides the errors in to errors & mistakes. Also divides errors into different categories.
It does not predict learners’ errors, as the CAH, but it sought to discover & describe different kinds of errors in an effort to try and understand how learners process 2nd language data.

16. Interlanguage Interlanguage:
A learner’s developing 2nd language knowledge. It may have characteristics of the learner’s 1st language, characteristics of the 2nd language and some characteristics that are general in all interlanguage systems.
Interlanguage is characterized by 3 points:
Systematic. (It has rules. Not necessarily correct rules, but has rules.)
Dynamic (Although systematic, its rules may change depending on the input the learner receives)
Variable (it depend on the input the learner receives)