1. Memory!!

2. Lecture Overview What is Memory? Forgetting Problems with Memory
Memory Improvement

3. Memory Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information
Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory)
Memory is rarely perfect
Forgetting refers to memory failure

4. Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory
Limited capacity (7 items)
Duration is about 30 seconds
Long-Term Memory (LTM) has a large capacity and long duration

5. Overview of Memory Model

6. Long-Term Memory
Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning
REM sleep may play a key role in categorizing new items within LTM
Memories retrieved from LTM are not an exact replica of the original event
Memories are reconstructed and can be altered during the retrieval process

7. STM: Working Memory

8. Memory as a Computer © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

9. Parallel Distributed Processing
PDP model of memory recognizes that our brain processes multiple operations and involves a vast network of processing units that operate simultaneously.
PDP model suggests that our memory works more like a telephone company, than like a computer.
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

10. Integrating Approaches
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

11. Varieties of LTM © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

12. Organization of LTM
Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item
Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient
Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

13. Memory Measures
Recognition is when a specific cue is matched against LTM
Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory
E.g. define the term “statistical significance”
Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time.
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

14. Biological Perspective
Long-term Potentiation - As a response is learned, specific neural pathways are established that become progressively more excitable and responsive
Synapses are strengthened by stimulation of dendrites to grow more spines
Ability of a neuron to release its neurotransmitters can be increased or decreased
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

15. Flashbulb Memories Where were you when you first heard:
What were you doing when you heard about 9/11?
Where were your parents when JFK was shot?
What were you doing when you first heard about Katrina?
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

16. Brain Areas Related to Memory
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

17. Forgetting
Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information
Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

18. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
This graph dramatizes how rapidly nonsense syllables are forgotten, especially in the first few hours after learning.
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

19. Study Strategies
Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session
Distributed practice leads to better retention
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

20. Serial Position Effect
Remembering information at the beginning and end of a list better than material in the middle
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

21. Theories of Forgetting
Decay theory: memory trace fades with time
Interference theory argues that information competes for retrieval
Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information
Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information
Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful memories
Encoding failure: may contribute to information never being encoded from STM to LTM and thus forgotten.
Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

22. Amnesia Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or trauma
Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma
Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma
Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Point of Trauma
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

23. Anatomy of Memory Bilateral damage to the hippocampus
results in anterograde
amnesia (Patient H.M.)
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

24. Patient H.M. Patient H.M. suffered from chronic brain seizures
In the 1950’s, surgeons removed portions of his hippocampus in order to reduce the seizures
Since the surgery, Patient H.M. shows chronic anterograde amnesia
He has normal STM
He has normal recall for material learned prior to the surgery
Patient H.M. has learned very little since the surgery
Patient H.M. would have no idea of the significance of:
Watergate
The Challenger explosion
The death of Princess Diana
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

25. Issues in Memory
Memory recall may involve reconstruction and thus may not be accurate
Reasons for inaccuracy of memory:
Source amnesia: attribution of a memory to the wrong source (e.g. a dream is recalled as an actual event)
Sleeper effect: a piece of information from an unreliable source is initially discounted, but is recalled after the source has been forgotten
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

26. Eyewitness Testimony
Primarily because of the constructive nature of memory, the reliability of eyewitness testimony is questioned.
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

27. Repressed Memories
The area of repressed memories is a hotly contested debate
The reliability of repressed memories is called into question due to:
the constructive element of memory
source amnesia
the sleeper effect
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

28. Memory Strategies
Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing information
Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a building
Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”)
Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learned
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E

29. Improving memory Use rehearsal techniques Improve organization
Counteract the serial position effect
Avoid massed practice
Manage time
Use the encoding specificity principle
Employ self-monitoring and overlearning
Use mnemonic devices
© 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Huffman: PSYCHOLOGY IN ACTION, 7E