1. MODULE 2 Myers’ Exploring Psychology 5th Ed.
Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions

2. How About Common Sense?
“Absence makes the heart grow fonder” vs. “Out of sight, out of mind.”
We look for patterns.
We learn from experience.
Sometimes we are wrong.
Data helps, but is no guarantee.

3. Why do Psychology? Hindsight Bias Overconfidence
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we do

4. Show me the evidence! Some things seem true that are not.
Some things seem false that are true.
Some things we just don’t know.
And some things we discover, disproving what we thought we knew!

5. Critical Thinking
Humility Required!

6. Why do Psychology? Critical Thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions
examines assumptions
discerns hidden values
evaluates evidence
assesses conclusions

7. The Scientific Method Theory Hypothesis
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Hypothesis
a testable prediction
often implied by a theory

8. The Scientific Method Case Study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

9. The Scientific Method Naturalistic Observation
Watching and recording the behavior of organisms in their natural environment
Be careful not to see what you expect to see.
Be aware that organisms are reactive!

10. The Scientific Method Survey
technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people
usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them

11. The Scientific Method Survey
Ask the right questions of the right people.
You must use a representative (random) sample.
You must be careful to ask the question that you intended in an unbiased manner?

12. The Scientific Method Survey Sampling & Shere Hite
Sampled 100,000 people
4500 returns
70 % of women were having affairs
(Other surveys found only 1/7)

13. The Scientific Method Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other

14. The Scientific Method Correlation Coefficient
Ranges from +1 to -1 (0=no relationship)
Shows strength & direction of relationship
Can be used to predict one variable from another

15. The Scientific Method
Correlation Coefficient cannot be used as evidence of causality!!
A caused B
B caused A
C caused both

16. Correlation and Causation
Three possible cause-effect relations
could cause
(1)
Low self-esteem
Depression
(2)
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause or
and

17. Random Sequences
Your chances of being dealt either of these hands is precisely the same: 1 in 2,598,960.

18. The Scientific Method Experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe their effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable)
The key to showing evidence of causality through experimentation is control.

19. The Scientific Method Independent Variable Dependent Variable
manipulated (different in each group)
cause of the change in the dependent variable
Dependent Variable
measured effect
may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

20. The Scientific Method Experimental Condition Control Condition
the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control Condition
the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental treatment
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

21. The Scientific Method Random Assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance
minimizes preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

22. The Scientific Method Placebo Placebo Effect
an inert substance or condition that may be administered instead of a presumed active agent, such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects believed to characterize the active agent
Placebo Effect
any effect on behavior caused by a placebo

23. The Scientific Method Double-blind Procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

24. The Scientific Method Comparing Research Methods
Research Method Basic Purpose How Conducted What is
Manipulated
Descriptive To observe and Case studies, surveys, Nothing
record behavior and naturalistic
observations
Correlational To detect naturally Computing statistical Nothing
occurring relationships; association, sometimes
to assess how well among survey
one variable predicts responses
Experimental To explore cause Manipulating one or Independent
and effect more factors and using variable(s)
random assignment
to eliminate preexisting
differences among
subjects

25. The Scientific Method Replication
repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic finding generalizes to other participants and circumstances
usually with different subjects in different situations