1. How to Make Arguments for Everyone…or at Least Try
Audience Awareness
How to Make Arguments for Everyone…or at Least Try

2. Typically… Most of time, our audience is known to us.
Typically our audience are our friends, our parents, our neighbors, or our classmates.
Most of the time we know who we are talking or writing or texting to and we know what we can and cannot say to them.
In The New Rhetoric, Chaim Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca called this the “particular audience”.

3. Particular Audiences
When discussing the audience at hand, this is what Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca note is called a Particular Audience.
The particular audience is “any group of individuals physically present in an assembly,” or in other words, a known or specific group you are addressing (124).
Particular Audiences tend to be specific, focused groups of people who one might directly target and influence via speaking and/or writing.

4. Universal Audience
This is the other and LARGER type of audience that Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca discuss.
The New Rhetoric lays this out as “any group of people who are intelligent, competent, and reasonable human beings that can process information to arrive at a conclusion on a particular topic” (124).
The big determiner here is the word “any” because what this points to is the fact that a universal audience is also a largely “unknown” audience.
Because it is “unknown,” how one addresses this audience requires greater care.

5. Particular vs. Universal
It would be easy for me to say to you that I am your audience. This would make the situation a Particular Audience situation.
However, because often times writing is done in public situations and for public consumption via social media or elsewhere, it is perhaps a better skill to be aware of and deal with the Universal Audience.
So, we are going to approach our argumentative papers from that standpoint. That of addressing a Universal Audience.

6. How to Prepare
To help us target a Universal Audience we want to address both the way we format and present our arguments as well as the language we use in our writing too.
Starting with Format, I want to start by looking at how the format - The Classical Model - we are using will help make sure we are properly prepared to address a Universal Audience.

7. Classical Model
Just beyond the introduction and thesis statement we have the background section of our paper (see handout illustration).
This section helps play a crucial role in helping reach our Universal Audience.
The Background Section of an argumentative paper is designed to help address any definitions, key terms, synopsis of story, etc. that might be necessary for us to present to our audience before we simply dive into the matter of presenting our argument

8. Background Info

9. Use of Language
Another crucial way we position our arguments to reach a Universal Audience involves the way we phrase and word things.
This is important, because, again, we do not specifically know who the audience might be. We know a little about them, but not a lot.
Also, because in our case we are writing rather than speaking, there exists far less an opportunity to correct our position once someone has started reading our paper.

10. Critical Start
When someone is reading our paper, the first big thing we want to avoid is “flying off the handle” with language that is TOO fiery or filled with pathos.
This is not to say we cannot be passionate, but we do not know if whoever is reading our paper may not agree with our position.
Our aim is persuade a potentially little or unknown audience. If we come off to passionate we may “turn off” our audience before they can continue reading.
If they stop reading, our attempt at persuasion has already failed.

11. Say you are speaking to members of NRA (National Rifle Association).
Verbal Example
Say you are speaking to members of NRA (National Rifle Association).
If you begin your speech or writing with: “We need to regulate guns. We just have to and we need to face up to this reality.” You will probably quickly lose your audience because this is not a position they agree with.
A better way might be this:
“Like you, I am myself a gun owner. I believe it is not the role of the government to regulate guns, but we must acknowledge that the reality is that guns are getting into the hands of people who are not responsible. As an organization we must be the ones to lead the charge for gun regulation to make sure our guns are not taken from us through strict government control.”

12. Explanation
Taking into account my two examples, the first immediately created a barrier between me and my audience, where as the second was far from less passionate but took the time to speak to the values that were important to the audience.
Now, that was a Particular Audience example there, but the lesson applies to the Universal Audience as well.
Seek to engage your audience through moderated (third person often) language aimed at building middle ground and speaking to shared values.

13. Qualifiers
When we make assertions and we want to maintain common ground with our audience, keep in your mind the use of qualifiers:
You do not know everything or what everyone is thinking.
You want to make strong assertions without undermining your argument.
According to the Writing Center at UNC, “Qualifiers are often necessary, such as when your evidence or your claim is open to doubt [which most argumentative claims are]. In such cases, using a qualifier allows you to present your findings with what we can call ‘confident uncertainty,’ which reflects a need to be cautious and critical about the data you are presenting” (“Qualifiers”).

14. Useful Qualifiers

15. Argument and Counter-Argument
Beyond building common ground via language and use of qualifiers, there is one part of our paper where the application of language meets a specific process. This is the part of our paper called the Counter-Argument.
This part of the paper asks you to give a voice to the other perspectives on your argument OTHER than the one you are arguing for.
Not only will you give a voice to opposing viewpoints, but you will attempt to challenge them and reinforce your own viewpoint in the process. This helps you build credibility while disarming potential arguments before others can raise them.

16. The Believing Game
To represent and give voice to an opposing viewpoint, sometimes you need some help.
One way is to play Peter Elbow’s “Believing Game” where you attempt to temporarily embody and present the argument of a naysayer or opposing viewpoint as if it was your own.
This can help make sure you appear credible and respectful towards an opposing viewpoint, which only helps you with your potential Universal Audience.

17. Refutation and Concession
Counter-Argument
When presenting opposing viewpoints and naysayers be respectful and thorough.
Doing this demonstrates an awareness of your audience and recognizes that they are independent critical thinkers who are are aware that your viewpoint is not the only one.
Refutation and Concession
When attempting to reinforce your viewpoint and engage with the opposition you can sometimes point out flaws in the other arguments or sometimes you can choose to agree with parts of the opposition while standing your ground on points of disagreement.

18. Review LANGUAGE FORMAT & LANGUAGE
So, what are the ways we want to approach Audience Awareness in our argumentative essays? Particular Audience: The audience you know, typically already agree with you. Universal Audience: The audience you most likely do not know, may agree or disagree with you. FORMAT Classical Model Background Section – place to make sure your audience is informed enough to follow your argument
LANGUAGE
Building Common Ground via Language
-Make sure the language you use, in third person, invites your audience to continue reading.
Qualifiers
-Helps you make assertions without overreaching.
FORMAT & LANGUAGE
Counter-Argument– provide your audience with other viewpoints than the one you are arguing following your own argument.

19. Practice
To practice Audience Awareness, I would like you to play a version of Peter Elbow’s “Believing Game”.
Briefly, write a brief and persuasive summary about how you feel about the following topic and then write a brief and persuasive summary for the opposite point of view of the topic below. Do not label topics. When done, hand them to someone next to you and have them see if they can figure out which is your real view. If you have done your job well, they should not be able to tell.
Topic:
Are comic books appropriate for use in the college classroom?