1. Natural Evil
This is when suffering is a result of a natural disaster such as an earthquake, Tsunami or volcanic explosion.
St. Augustine said it happens because God’s plans for a perfect world have been ruined by sin. Evidence for this view is pollution and the overuse of the earth’s resources. (We will talk more about this later)

2. John Hick writes:
‘Natural evil is the evil that originates independently of human actions, in disease…in earthquakes, storms, droughts, tornadoes’ (Evil and the God of love, 1968)

3. Moral Evil
This is when suffering is a result of wrong human moral actions. A moral evil is when an action is considered wrong either by secular law or by sacred law.

4. Richard Swinburne writes:
‘Moral evil understand as including all evil caused deliberately by humans doing what they ought not to do, or allowed to occur by humans negligently failing to do what they ought to do, and also the evil constituted by such deliberate actions or negligent failure’ (Is there a God? , 1996)

5. Moral evil Natural evil
All suffering is a result of either human action or the natural world. Make a list of suffering, categorizing your examples as either having natural causes or human causes.
Moral evil
Natural evil
September 11th – World Trade Center
Volcano disasters
Teachers may wish to use the brainstorm from slide two to provide the examples for this activity.
Amnesty International’s web site ( provides many examples of suffering caused by human action.

6. But for theists – people who believe in God – it raises other questions
This is because theists believe that God is
Omniscient – He knows everything
Omnipotent – He has the power to do anything
Omni benevolent – He is all good and all loving

7. If God knows everything
Why doesn’t he act to stop suffering before it happens?

8. If God is all powerful …
Why does he let us suffer?

9. If God is all loving …
Surely he would want us to be happy

10. Theists believe that God designed and created the world

11. Why did he create a world that contains so much death and destruction?

12. If he has the power to stop suffering
But chooses not to
Can he be good?

13. If he is unable to stop suffering …
He is not all powerful, but weak

14. The problem of evil – summary

15. Epicurus
In around 300 BC, the ancient thinker Epicurus put the problem as follows:
‘Is God willing to prevent evil, but not able? Then He is not omnipotent. Is He able but not willing? Then He is Malevolent. Then whence evil?’
The problem arises if one believes that God is all powerful and completely loving which is a belief held by the three major world faiths: Christianity, Judaism and Islam.

16. Christian Views about Suffering and evil
Copy this diagram into your books:
Maybe God doesn’t care about or human suffering or causes human suffering
Maybe God isn’t all loving
Maybe God can’t do anything about human suffering.
Maybe God isn’t all powerful.
Maybe
God
doesn't
exist
Suffering
exists
Maybe God doesn’t know about human suffering.
Maybe God isn’t all knowing

17. The inconstant triad.
JL Mackie discussed in his paper ‘evil and omnipotence’ (mind, 1955) that the three propositions comprising the problem of evil form an inconstant triad.
The conjunction of any two entails the negation of the third.
God’s omnipotence
Evil exists
Gods Omni benevolence
Note how each corner of the triad represents a claim that religious believers
Have to accept as part of their faith, or one that would be counter intuitive
For them to reject.

18. David Hume sums up the general atheist conclusion
That because the qualities of omnipotence, benevolence and evil cannot exist simultaneously, but evil does exist, then the God of classical theism cannot exist.

19. The problem of evil is, according to David Hume (18th century) ‘the rock of atheism’ What does Hume mean by this?

20. Augustine expressed the problem as
‘Either God cannot abolish evil or he will not: if he cannot then he is not all powerful, if he will not then he is not all good.’ (Augustine of Hippo, confessions, oxford paperbacks, 1998)

21. Aquinas wrote:
‘if one of two contraries be infinite, the other would be altogether destroyed. But the name of God means that he is infinite goodness. If, therefore, God existed, there would be no evil discoverable; but there is evil in the world. Therefore God does not exist.’ (Aquinas Summa Theologica cited in ‘the existence of God’ edited by John Hick 1964)

22. It is important to note that neither Augustine or Aquinas believed the existence of evil disproved the existence of God, but both were aware of the issues raised by this.

23. Richard Swinburne said…
‘There is a problem about why God allows evil, and if the theist does not have (in a cool moment) a satisfactory answer to it, then his belief in God is less than rational, and there is no reason why the atheist should share it’( is there a God? 1996)

24. A few ways around the problem??
One way to get around the problem is to change the nature of God (not particularly useful to classical theists who’s definition of God is that he is omni benevolent, omnipresent and omnipotent!)

25. OTHER WAYS AROUND THE PROBLEM?
There would be no problem with evil if it could be proved that evil does not exist, or that our perception of evil is wrong in some way.
There are several ways to consider this:

26. THERE IS NO GOD (obviously not a good solution for theists)
For atheists evil is convincing evidence that God does not exist.
‘I cannot imagine any omnipotent sentient being sufficiently cruel to create the world we inhabit.' Iris Murdoch, a severed head, 1961)
The atheistic argument is that it is just as rational to reject a belief in God.

27. There is no evil
Monists claim that the universe is a single, harmonious unity that is good, and so evil is a mere illusion of our minds. Evil causes a feeling of suffering only because we cannot see the whole picture. If we could see the whole picture we would realise that evil is an illusion. Evil is not something God has created but rather the absence of good, like an eye that is blind.

28. Benedict Spinoza
We consider things in terms of how useful they are to us and miss their true value.
We regard anything that does not fit in to our norm of how people , animals and objects behave as defective
If we looked at the universe objectively, without putting ourselves first, we would see that everything has unique value.
‘All things are necessarily what they are, and in Nature, there is no good and evil’ (Ethics, 2001)

29. G. Leibniz
This world is the best of all possible worlds, because God, in his wisdom and goodness, could not have made it in any other way.
Therefore evil must be an illusion: it cannot have reality in such a world.

30. This raises problems because it seems to contradict our own experiences of the world in which there is suffering.
Why would a loving God allow suffering even if it was an illusion?
It trivialises the issue- if suffering was just an illusion why bother to try and avoid it?

31. Our view of evil is distorted
In Hindu and Buddhist thought evil is an illusion brought about by human greed and selfishness.
Under the laws of karma and rebirth suffering is a result of human evil committed in a previous life.
Suffering is caused by your actions in a previous life not God
Evil and suffering can, therefore be overcome by a person achieving good karma by becoming more and more detached from the world.

32. Look at the story of Adam and Eve from Genesis, what does it tell you about evil and suffering?
Complete the Adam and Eve worksheet.

33. Adam and Eve
“You will not die. For God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will be opened , and you will be like God, knowing good and evil” (Genesis 3:5)

34. Evil is introduced into the World
Adam and Eve are thrown out of the Garden of Eden because they disobeyed God’s will
(Freewill)

35. Human Nature is now corrupted
“And the Lord God made for Adam and his wife, garments of skin and clothed them”
Genesis 3:21
Why was this necessary?

36. The freewill defence
The world is the logically necessary environment for humans to develop-opportunity for people to make real choices that produce both good and evil.

37. Richard Swinburne ‘the existence of God’ (2005) without such choices people would not really be free. God allows this because to limit human freedom is to take away the need for humans to be responsible.
‘The less he allows men to bring about large scale horrors, the less freedom and responsibility he gives them.’

38. Swinburne Death is necessary-don’t learn from infinite chances.
Need to take responsibilities seriously
No second chances
Natural evil-humans can know how to avoid it.

39. John Hick ‘Evil and the God of love’ (1986)
We cant say some evils are too great because we begin to go down to thinking the smallest thing is too much suffering.
Must accept the world for what it is.
The alternative= ‘would approximate to a prolonged dream in which our experience arranges itself according to our desires’

40. Weaknesses of freewill defence
Read through the weaknesses of the freewill defence , create a spider diagram explaining these criticisms in your own words.

41. The Augustinian theodicy
Augustine ( CE)
‘Confessions’
‘City of God’

42. The universe is good, it is the creation of a good God, for a good purpose.
‘God saw all that he made and it was very good (Genesis 1:31)
There are higher and lower goods.

43. Evil is a privation of good.
Evil is not a thing/substance and God did not create it.
It is the going wrong of something that is, in itself, good.
Example: sickness is a physical lack of good health.

44. How did evil come about?
When those beings that had freewill- humans and angels – turned their back on God (the supreme good) and settles for a lesser good.
Highlighted in the fall.

45. Adam and eve disobey
As a consequence the state of perfection was ruined by human sin and the delicate balance of the world was destroyed.
Natural evil- loss of order in nature
Moral evil- knowledge of good and evil through human disobedience.
(Augustine believed that the sis of Adam was passed on to all humans (seminally present) this is called original sin.

46. God is right not to intervene
Because suffering is the PUNISHMENT and because God is just he will carry out this justice.

47. At the end of time… Those who follow God Eternal torment
Those who reject God
Those who follow God
Eternal torment
Eternal life
‘since there is happiness for those who do not sin, the universe is perfect; it is no less perfect if there is misery for sinners…the penalty of sin corrects the dishonour of sin.’ On freewill and choice

48. Augustine concluded
If God were only just everyone would serve their rightful punishment in hell
But he is loving so sent Jesus to die
So that those who believed and accepted him could be saved and have eternal life

49. Evaluation of Augustine’s Theodicy
It clears God of any responsibility of the existence of evil: responsibility lies with the angels and with humanity

50. Can you think of any criticisms to the Augustinian theodicy?
Schleiermacher, ‘The Christian Faith’, (1999)
-either the universe was not perfect to start with or God made it go wrong; either way God is to blame.
If the world was perfect and there was no knowledge of good and evil how could there be freedom to disobey God?

51. Scientific criticisms
Anti-scientific. Augustine suggests that the world was perfect and was damaged by humans- evolution suggests that the universe began as chaos and is developing continuously-including human life.
Suffering is essential to survival: things must die so that others may live . Eg food. Natural order=evil?

52. Religious criticisms
Augustine said that evil was not a thing but privation of good, but many religious believers argue that evil is a very real entity…
in Satan
Eternal punishment in hell contradicts an all loving God and serves no usefull purpose. If hell was part of the design of the universe then God knew it would go wrong.

53. The Irenaean theodicy Ireneaus (130-202 CE) ‘Against Heresies’
The world is the way is because God has a plan and purpose to provide humans with the opportunity to develop qualities necessary to become perfect

54. Humanity-the children of God created in two stages
1) Made in the image of God (Genesis 1:26) brought into existence as intelligent but immature beings with the capacity of moral and spiritual perfection.
2) will grow into the likeness of God (Genesis 1:26) by developing, over a long period of time into perfect moral and spiritual beings

55. God could not have created humans in complete perfection because to gain a likeness to God needed the willing cooperation of humans.
Freedom requires the option to choose good or evil.
Evil can help humanity to gain characteristics such as courage, generosity, kindness, love.

56. Biblical support-Paul
‘we also rejoice in our suffering because we know that suffering produces perseverance…character…and hope.’ (Romans 5:3)
‘I consider that our present sufferings are not worth comparing with the glory that will be revealed in us. The creation waits in eager expectation for the sons of God to be revealed’ (Romans 8:18-19)

57. Eventually evil and suffering will be overcome and humanity will develop into Gods perfect likeness and will live in heaven

58. Modern scholars have developed Irenaeus’ ideas further…
John Hick- if God created Humans perfectly we would be like robots. Our development allows humans to be genuinely loving.
The world has to be imperfect because humans need the opportunity to choose good.

59. If God intervened humans would not learn and develop.

60. Is this the best possible world?
Supporters of the Irenaean theodicy argue this is the best of all possible worlds because it offers an environment where humans are able to develop the finest characteristics of life.
A heavenly afterlife is necessary for humans in order to achieve perfection- you cannot achieve perfection in one lifetime and suffering did not always produce good qualities.

61. supporters Richard Swinburne
This is the best possible world- humans have the opportunity to be involved in discovering new things for themselves.
Although the price may be high it is worth paying and points more fully to the existence of a loving God than a world in which humans could make to appreciable difference.

62. Evaluation of the Iraneann theodicy
STRENGHTS:
Allows room for the theory of evolution.
Avoids some of the problems associated with the Augustinian theodicy- such as evil coming from nowhere.

63. Read through the handout relating to the weaknesses of the Irenaean theodicy.
Which of these do you think is the strongest criticism and which do you consider the weakest and why?

64. Process theodicy

65. Process Theodicy Process thought was developed
by A.N. Whitehead ( ).
In the 20th century David Griffin developed process thought into a theodicy. ‘God power and Evil :A Process Theodicy (1976)

66. God is not omnipotent

67. The universe is an uncreated process

68. God is part of the world and is bound by natural laws…

69. God’s role was limited to starting off the evolutionary process…

70. Evolution ended in the formation of humans…

71. Humans exert there control over the world…

72. God does not have total control as humans can ignore him…

73. We were also not created in the image of God…
I don’t understand these humans!

74. God suffers when we suffer…
I feel terrible!!!!

75. Oosps.. Not sure I should have done that..?
God has some responsibility for evil… as he knew he might not be able to control it once evolution started….
Oosps.. Not sure I should have done that..?

76. Why did God take this risk?

77. The universe has produced enough good to outweigh the evil…

78. The universe we live in now is better than no universe at all…
This justify God’s work!

79. Criticisms of process theodicy

80. Conclusion!
The existence of Evil and suffering are major arguments against the existence of God. For non-believers, it strengthens their point of view. Religious believers, in turn, find it difficult to explain beyond saying that God has a purpose that we cannot understand. The problem raises all sorts of issues about the nature of life and death and whether the suffering of life is worthwhile.

81. More than this, it challenges the power of God
More than this, it challenges the power of God. There are no easy answers, as Richard Swinburne acknowledges in his work ‘is there a God?’ (1996)
‘A generous God will seek to give us great responsibility for ourselves, each other, and the world, and share in his own creative activity of determining what sort of world it is to be. And he will seek to make our lives valuable, of great use to ourselves and to each other. The problem is that God cannot give us these goods in full measure without allowing much evil on the way’