1. Production Functions
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2. Production Function
The firm’s production function for a particular good (q) shows the maximum amount of the good that can be produced using alternative combinations of capital (k) and labor (l)
q = f(k,l)

3. Short Run & Long Run

4. Reasons for the existence of different production runs:
Whenever a market situation changes a firm has to make a new decision  so as to maximize wealth.
At the beginning
The firm is uncertain if the change in the market situation is temporary or permanent.
It will make only the minimal and necessary change in factors to minimize cost.

5. Reasons for the existence of different production runs:
Afterwards
Even if the change is certain to be permanent,
the adjustment in factors should still be slow and gradual because hasty change involves a larger cost.

6. Reasons for the existence of different production runs:
Since adjustment is gradual, according to the completeness in the adjustment in factors, three different production runs are classified.

7. all required variations have been made.
Classification of production runs
Very short run (VSR)
all factors are fixed (remains unchanged).
Short run (SR)
some factors are varied but some are fixed.
Long run (LR)
all factors are variable and
all required variations have been made.

8. Variable factors versus fixed factors
Variable factors: are factors of which the employment varies with output.
Fixed factors: are factors of which the employment does not vary with output.

9. Any change in factor employment? Any change in output level?
Fill in the table.
VSR SR LR
Any change in factor employment?
Any change in output level?
Reasons
All factors are variable and all required changes are made
Some factors are varied but some are fixed No No
Yes
Yes
No adjustment —Time is needed to recognize the change, make decision & implement adjustment
Temporary adjust.
—Time is needed
to identify if the
change is permanent
& to make gradual
adjustment to
minimize cost
Final adjustment – Time is long enough for the final adjust. to be determined & implemented.

10. Three variables are defined to measure the output:
____________________: is the whole amount of output produced by all the factors employed.
Total product (TP)
____________________: is the output per unit of the variable factor employed.
Average product (AP)
____________________: the change in output resulting from employing an additional unit of the variable factor.
Marginal product (MP)
TP = Q

11. The law of diminishing marginal productivity
[or the law of diminishing returns
or the law of variable proportions
states that if a _________ factor is added continuously to a given amount of _________ factors, the marginal product (and the average product) of the _________ factor must finally decrease, ceteris paribus.
variable
fixed
variable

12. Derivation of the law:
With a given amount of fixed factors, when one worker is employed, he can use only some of the fixed factors each time.
When more workers are employed, they can specialize and raise the productivity. (Both MP & AP ).
However, after all the fixed factors have been efficiently used, additional workers can help the preceding workers only. Hence MP  which will finally drag down AP (and even TP).

13. Graphical illustration:
>
MP
>
>
MP
Once the MP curve passes through the AP curve and lies below it, the AP curve will also be dragged down. Why?
>
AP
AP 
>
>

14. When AP rises, MP must lie above AP.
When AP falls, MP must lie below AP.
How can MP lying above AP become lying below it? (If MP curve is continuous, it must pass through the maximum point of AP curve.)

15. The slope of TP curve is MP.
Features:
The slope of TP curve is MP.
The slope of the line joining the origin and a point on TP is AP.
Notice the points where MP = maxi.; MP=AP &
MP = 0.

16. Implications of the law (if the law is violated)
By adding units of fertilizer or worker continuously to a given plot of land, no matter how small its size is, TP can be increased continuously. Enough food can be produced to feed all the people in the world.
An infinitesimal piece of land is adequate to supply the amount of food required. Hence the supply of land is no longer scarce.  Land price would drop to zero.
MP of workers cultivating superior land does not fall and is always larger than MP of workers cultivating inferior land.
 No inferior land would be cultivated.

17. Implications of the law (if the law holds)
If the amount of land is fixed, TP cannot be
increased significantly (∵ MP & AP ) to feed all
the people in the world.
Hence to raise production, more land is needed. However, as the supply of land is limited and scarce, under competition, land price must be positive.
Once MP of superior land falls below MP of inferior land, inferior land will also be cultivated.

18. Marginal Physical Product
Marginal physical product is the additional output that can be produced by employing one more unit of that input
holding other inputs constant

19. Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Marginal physical product depends on how much of that input is used
In general, we assume diminishing marginal productivity

20. Diminishing Marginal Productivity
Diminishing marginal productivity led 19th century economist Thomas Malthus to worry about the effect of population growth on labor productivity
Changes in the marginal productivity of labor also depend on changes in other inputs such as capital
we need to consider flk which is often > 0

21. Average Physical Product
Labor productivity is often measured by average productivity
Note that APl also depends on the amount of capital employed

22. A Two-Input Production Function
Suppose the production function for flyswatters can be represented by
q = f(k,l) = 600k 2l2 - k 3l3
To construct MPl and APl, we must assume a value for k
let k = 10
The production function becomes
q = 60,000l l3

23. A Two-Input Production Function
The marginal productivity function is
MPl = q/l = 120,000l l2
which diminishes as l increases
This implies that q has a maximum value:
120,000l l2 = 0
40l = l2
l = 40
Labor input beyond l = 40 reduces output

24. A Two-Input Production Function
To find average productivity, we hold k=10 and solve
APl = q/l = 60,000l l2
APl reaches its maximum where
APl/l = 60, l = 0
l = 30

25. A Two-Input Production Function
In fact, when l = 30, both APl and MPl are equal to 900,000
Thus, when APl is at its maximum, APl and MPl are equal

26. Isoquant Maps
To illustrate the possible substitution of one input for another, we use an isoquant map
An isoquant shows those combinations of k and l that can produce a given level of output (q0)
f(k,l) = q0

27. Isoquant Map Each isoquant represents a different level of output
output rises as we move northeast
q = 30
q = 20
k per period
l per period

28. Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (RTS)
The slope of an isoquant shows the rate at which l can be substituted for k lA kA kB lB A B
k per period
- slope = marginal rate of technical substitution (RTS)
RTS > 0 and is diminishing for
increasing inputs of labor
q = 20
l per period

29. Marginal Rate of Technical Substitution (RTS)
The marginal rate of technical substitution (RTS) shows the rate at which labor can be substituted for capital
holding output constant along an isoquant

30. RTS and Marginal Productivities
Take the total differential of the production function:
Along an isoquant dq = 0, so

31. RTS and Marginal Productivities
Because MPl and MPk will both be nonnegative, RTS will be positive (or zero)
However, it is generally not possible to derive a diminishing RTS from the assumption of diminishing marginal productivity alone

32. RTS and Marginal Productivities
To show that isoquants are convex, we would like to show that d(RTS)/dl < 0
Since RTS = fl/fk

33. RTS and Marginal Productivities
Using the fact that dk/dl = -fl/fk along an isoquant and Young’s theorem (fkl = flk)
Because we have assumed fk > 0, the denominator is positive
Because fll and fkk are both assumed to be negative, the ratio will be negative if fkl is positive

34. Young’s Theorem
Under general conditions, the order in which partial differentiation is conducted to evaluate second-order partial derivatives does not matter

35. RTS and Marginal Productivities
Intuitively, it seems reasonable that fkl = flk should be positive
if workers have more capital, they will be more productive
But some production functions have fkl < 0 over some input ranges
assuming diminishing RTS means that MPl and MPk diminish quickly enough to compensate for any possible negative cross-productivity effects

36. A Diminishing RTS Suppose the production function is
q = f(k,l) = 600k 2l 2 - k 3l 3
For this production function
MPl = fl = 1200k 2l - 3k 3l 2
MPk = fk = 1200kl 2 - 3k 2l 3
these marginal productivities will be positive for values of k and l for which kl < 400

37. A Diminishing RTS Because
fll = 1200k 2 - 6k 3l
fkk = 1200l 2 - 6kl 3
this production function exhibits diminishing marginal productivities for sufficiently large values of k and l
fll and fkk < 0 if kl > 200

38. A Diminishing RTS
Cross differentiation of either of the marginal productivity functions yields
fkl = flk = 2400kl - 9k 2l 2
which is positive only for kl < 266

39. Returns to Scale
How does output respond to increases in all inputs together?
suppose that all inputs are doubled, would output double?
Returns to scale have been of interest to economists since the days of Adam Smith

40. Returns to Scale Two forces that occur as inputs are doubled
greater division of labor and specialization of function
loss in efficiency
management may become more difficult

41. Returns to Scale
If the production function is given by q = f(k,l) and all inputs are multiplied by the same positive constant (t >1), then

42. Returns to Scale
It is possible for a production function to exhibit constant returns to scale for some levels of input usage and increasing or decreasing returns for other levels
the degree of returns to scale is generally defined within a fairly narrow range of variation in input usage

43. Constant Returns to Scale
Constant returns-to-scale production functions are homogeneous of degree one in inputs
f(tk,tl) = t1f(k,l) = tq
The marginal productivity functions are homogeneous of degree zero
if a function is homogeneous of degree k, its derivatives are homogeneous of degree k-1

44. Constant Returns to Scale
The marginal productivity of any input depends on the ratio of capital and labor
not on the absolute levels of these inputs
The RTS between k and l depends only on the ratio of k to l, not the scale of operation

45. Constant Returns to Scale
The production function will be homothetic
Geometrically, all of the isoquants are radial expansions of one another

46. Constant Returns to Scale
Along a ray from the origin (constant k/l), the RTS will be the same on all isoquants
k per period
q = 3
q = 2
q = 1
The isoquants are equally
spaced as output expands
l per period

47. f(tx1,tx2,…,txn) = tkf(x1,x2,…,xn)=tkq
Returns to Scale
Returns to scale can be generalized to a production function with n inputs
q = f(x1,x2,…,xn)
If all inputs are multiplied by a positive constant t, we have
f(tx1,tx2,…,txn) = tkf(x1,x2,…,xn)=tkq
If k = 1, we have constant returns to scale
If k < 1, we have decreasing returns to scale
If k > 1, we have increasing returns to scale

48. Elasticity of Substitution
The elasticity of substitution () measures the proportionate change in k/l relative to the proportionate change in the RTS along an isoquant
The value of  will always be positive because k/l and RTS move in the same direction

49. Elasticity of Substitution
Both RTS and k/l will change as we move from point A to point B A B
 is the ratio of these
proportional changes
k per period
 measures the
curvature of the
isoquant
RTSA
RTSB
(k/l)A
(k/l)B
q = q0
l per period

50. Elasticity of Substitution
If  is high, the RTS will not change much relative to k/l
the isoquant will be relatively flat
If  is low, the RTS will change by a substantial amount as k/l changes
the isoquant will be sharply curved
It is possible for  to change along an isoquant or as the scale of production changes

51. Elasticity of Substitution
If we define the elasticity of substitution between two inputs to be the proportionate change in the ratio of the two inputs to the proportionate change in RTS, we need to hold output and the levels of other inputs constant

52. The Linear Production Function
Suppose that the production function is
q = f(k,l) = ak + bl
This production function exhibits constant returns to scale
f(tk,tl) = atk + btl = t(ak + bl) = tf(k,l)
All isoquants are straight lines
RTS is constant
 = 

53. The Linear Production Function
Capital and labor are perfect substitutes
k per period
RTS is constant as k/l changes
slope = -b/a q1 q2 q3
 = 
l per period

54. Fixed Proportions Suppose that the production function is
q = min (ak,bl) a,b > 0
Capital and labor must always be used in a fixed ratio
the firm will always operate along a ray where k/l is constant
Because k/l is constant,  = 0

55. Fixed Proportions
No substitution between labor and capital is possible
k/l is fixed at b/a
q3/b
q3/a
k per period q1 q2 q3
 = 0
l per period

56. Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Suppose that the production function is
q = f(k,l) = Akalb A,a,b > 0
This production function can exhibit any returns to scale
f(tk,tl) = A(tk)a(tl)b = Ata+b kalb = ta+bf(k,l)
if a + b = 1  constant returns to scale
if a + b > 1  increasing returns to scale
if a + b < 1  decreasing returns to scale

57. Cobb-Douglas Production Function
The Cobb-Douglas production function is linear in logarithms
ln q = ln A + a ln k + b ln l
a is the elasticity of output with respect to k
b is the elasticity of output with respect to l

58. CES Production Function
Suppose that the production function is
q = f(k,l) = [k + l] /   1,   0,  > 0
 > 1  increasing returns to scale
 < 1  decreasing returns to scale
For this production function
 = 1/(1-)
 = 1  linear production function
 = -  fixed proportions production function
 = 0  Cobb-Douglas production function

59. A Generalized Leontief Production Function
Suppose that the production function is
q = f(k,l) = k + l + 2(kl)0.5
Marginal productivities are
fk = 1 + (k/l)-0.5
fl = 1 + (k/l)0.5
Thus,

60. A Generalized Leontief Production Function
This function has a CES form with  = 0.5 and  = 1
The elasticity of substitution is

61. Technical Progress Methods of production change over time
Following the development of superior production techniques, the same level of output can be produced with fewer inputs
the isoquant shifts in

62. Technical Progress Suppose that the production function is
q = A(t)f(k,l)
where A(t) represents all influences that go into determining q other than k and l
changes in A over time represent technical progress
A is shown as a function of time (t)
dA/dt > 0

63. Technical Progress
Differentiating the production function with respect to time we get

64. Technical Progress
Dividing by q gives us

65. Technical Progress
For any variable x, [(dx/dt)/x] is the proportional growth rate in x
denote this by Gx
Then, we can write the equation in terms of growth rates

66. Technical Progress
Since

67. Technical Progress in the Cobb-Douglas Function
Suppose that the production function is
q = A(t)f(k,l) = A(t)k l 1-
If we assume that technical progress occurs at a constant exponential () then
A(t) = Aet
q = Aetk l 1-

68. Technical Progress in the Cobb-Douglas Function
Taking logarithms and differentiating with respect to t gives the growth equation

69. Technical Progress in the Cobb-Douglas Function

70. Important Points to Note:
If all but one of the inputs are held constant, a relationship between the single variable input and output can be derived
the marginal physical productivity is the change in output resulting from a one-unit increase in the use of the input
assumed to decline as use of the input increases

71. Important Points to Note:
The entire production function can be illustrated by an isoquant map
the slope of an isoquant is the marginal rate of technical substitution (RTS)
it shows how one input can be substituted for another while holding output constant
it is the ratio of the marginal physical productivities of the two inputs

72. Important Points to Note:
Isoquants are usually assumed to be convex
they obey the assumption of a diminishing RTS
this assumption cannot be derived exclusively from the assumption of diminishing marginal productivity
one must be concerned with the effect of changes in one input on the marginal productivity of other inputs

73. Important Points to Note:
The returns to scale exhibited by a production function record how output responds to proportionate increases in all inputs
if output increases proportionately with input use, there are constant returns to scale

74. Important Points to Note:
The elasticity of substitution () provides a measure of how easy it is to substitute one input for another in production
a high  implies nearly straight isoquants
a low  implies that isoquants are nearly L-shaped

75. Important Points to Note:
Technical progress shifts the entire production function and isoquant map
technical improvements may arise from the use of more productive inputs or better methods of economic organization