1. Chapter 15: Becoming a Responsible Health Care Consumer
The traditional attitude towards health care has been passive
People now realize that they must assume more responsibility for safeguarding their health
Health fatalism is the attitude that no information can be trusted
So much health information is written by so many sources, it is hard to keep them all strait.
Information is often confusing and even contradictory.
This leads to health fatalism.

2. Guidelines for Evaluating Health Information
An appropriate approach to health information is to adopt a skeptical and suspicious attitude, especially toward extreme and sensational health claims
Avoid jumping to conclusions because of oversimplification or generalization
Remember that health discoveries take time
Keep an open mind and realize that science is constantly evolving.

3. Guidelines for Evaluative Health Information
Beware of headline reading, which may present a partial truth that leads to a wrong conclusion
Health information that can be trusted is based on scientifically controlled studies that yield consistent results over time
A study should be:
valid (truthful)
reliable
statistically significant
Reliable means its findings should be confirmed in repeated studies conducted over the course of many years.
Statistically significant- it should be probable that 95 times out of 100 the same or very similar results would occur.

4. Knowing the Terms
A statistical relationship indicates the degree of association between two or more variables; it does not mean there is a cause and effect relationship
Risk factors are health habits or practices that increase the risk of getting certain diseases
Epidemiological studies are population studies in which the health habits and lifestyles of many people are observed over time
A study should have a sufficient number of people in it to make the information applicable
Prospective studies follow a group at a specific point in time and identify relationships between disease and lifestyle.
Retrospective research looks back in time to establish any possible relationship.

5. Questions to Ask What type of study was used?
What was the funding source of the study?
Where they scientifically controlled studies?
What were the characteristics of the people in the study?
How many people were in the study?
Epidemiologic, prospective, or retrospective
What is the motivation of the funding source?
Double-blind with experimental and control group is best controlled study
Racially diverse is best. A homogeneous group would not be a source of much confidence.
Unfortunately, the projects with small numbers usually make big headlines. In general, the more subjects that are in the study, the better.

6. When to Get Help
Signs and symptoms that warrant immediate medical attention are:
* Signs of internal bleeding
* Abdominal pain with nausea
* A stiff neck accompanied by fever
* Serious first aid emergencies and injuries
Trust your instincts; you know best about your health
Adults rarely need to seek help for a fever; unless it is greater than 102F that has shown no improvement for 72 hours

7. Entering a Hospital
When entering a hospital, know the hospital’s accreditation status
Decide on accommodations before admission
Know your rights as a patient
Discuss all treatments and procedures, and ask questions if you do not understand something
Informed consent is your agreement to a procedure after having been informed about it and the risks involved

8. Managing Health Care
Implied consent is nonverbal authorization for a medical procedure
The primary care physician manages the general care of patients and directs them to specialized services as needed
Patients who do not insist on being heard may get plenty of advice and medications, but they may not get the best results

9. Managing Health Care
The best way to communicate with a physician about health problems is to:
* Be specific about conditions
* State the most important problem first
* Know your family medical history
* Know the names of medicines you are taking (including herbal and vitamin supplements)
* Know your diagnosis
* Know how to follow recommended treatments

10. Making Choices
A second opinion is appropriate for chronic pain, recurring illnesses, and elective surgery
Alternative (complementary) medicine is the use of therapies not taught in U.S. medical schools; it is generally unavailable from doctors or hospitals

11. Physical Exams
People over 45 can benefit from a physical exam every year; those under 45 should see their physician at least every 2 years
The medical history is the most important part of the physical exam
The hands-on examination consists of touching, looking, and listening
Diagnostic laboratory tests for specific symptoms may be invaluable; a periodic exam includes laboratory tests as needed
The medical history can many times guide the physician to a diagnosis without laboratory tests.
Questions can be asked before taking a laboratory test.
Tests are not 100% accurate.
Some common tests are blood screenings, cholesterol screenings, hemoccult tests, pulse rate, blood pressure, mammography, papanicolaou tests (pap smears), tonometry, electrocardiograms, chest x-rays, prostate cancers tests, and HIV tests.

12. Health Care
Defensive medicine involves prescribing tests and procedures in order to protect the doctor from medical-malpractice lawsuits
Adults should be immunized against influenza, pneumonia, hepatitis, measles, rubella, tetanus, diphtheria, and chicken pox
Insurance policies influence health care options