1. Immune Receptors and Signal Transduction
Chapter 7
Immune Receptors and Signal Transduction

3. The idea that cells may have specific surface receptors that can be triggered by external ligands came from one of the founders of modern immunology. Paul Ehrlich, in his “side chain theory,” published in 1897, conceived of antibodies on the surface of immune cells that recognize antigens and instruct the immune cell to secrete more of the same antibody. Cell surface receptors for hormones were discovered many decades later in the second half of the 20th century but well before the identification of antigen receptors on lymphocytes in the early 1980s

4. Cell surface receptors serve two major functions:
the induction of intracellular signaling and
the adhesion of one cell to another or to the extracellular matrix
Signaling initiated by these receptors typically involves an initial cytosolic phase when the receptor or proteins that interact with the receptor may be post-translationally modified. This often leads to the activation or nuclear translocation of transcription factors that are silent in resting cells, followed by a nuclear phase when transcription factors orchestrate changes in gene expression
Signal transduction result in a number of different consequences for a cell, including acquisition of new functions, induction of differentiation, commitment to a specific lineage, protection from cell death, initiation of proliferative and growth responses, and induction of cell cycle arrest or of death by apoptosis

6. Signaling from the cell surface involves cytosolic and nuclear phases

7. AN OVERVIEW OF SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION

8. The initiation of signaling from a cell surface receptor may require ligand-induced clustering of the receptor, known as receptor cross-linking, or may involve a conformational alteration of the receptor that is induced by its association with ligand
The enzymes that add phosphate groups onto amino acid side chains are called protein kinases (protein tyrosine kinases)
Other protein are serine/ threonine kinases,
Some enzymes activated downstream of signaling receptors phosphorylate lipid substrates; they are therefore known as lipid kinases
specific phosphatase,

9. Cellular receptors are grouped into several categories based on the signaling mechanisms they use and the intracellular biochemical pathways they activate

10. Modular Signaling Proteins and Adaptors

11. The modular structure of tyrosine kinases that influence lymphocyte activation

12. THE IMMUNE RECEPTOR FAMILY

13. Immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily

15. T Cell Receptor Complex and T Cell Signaling

18. Ligand-receptor pairs involved in T cell activation

19. Co-receptors

20. Immunologic Synapse

21. Early tyrosine phosphorylation events in T cell activation

24. Activation of Transcription Factors That Regulate T Cell Gene Expression

26. Co-stimulatory and Inhibitory Receptors of the CD28 Family
CD28 is a membrane protein that transduces signals that function together with signals delivered by the TCR complex to activate naive T cells
In the case of T cells, binding of peptide-MHC complexes to the TCR (and to the CD4 or CD8 coreceptor) provides signal 1. The second signal for T cell activation is provided by molecules that are collectively called costimulators
Best defined costimulators for T lymphocytes are a pair of related proteins, called B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86), that are expressed on dendritic cells, macrophages, and B lymphocytes

27. Costimulatory Receptors of T Cells

28. Structure of the B Cell Receptor for Antigen

29. Metabolic changes during T cell activation

33. THE ATTENUATION OF IMMUNE RECEPTOR SIGNALING

34. Inhibitory signaling in lymphocytes

35. E3 Ubiquitin Ligases and the Degradation of Signaling Proteins

36. The prototypical inhibitory receptor of the CD28 family, CTLA-4 (also called CD152), has the ability to inhibit T cell responses induced on activated T cells and has a higher affinity than CD28 for B7 proteins. CTLA-4 is involved in the maintenance of unresponsiveness (tolerance) to self antigens
Another inhibitory receptor of the same family is called PD-1 (programmed death 1)
CTLA-4 contains a tyrosine-containing motif in its tail that may be inhibitory; PD-1 contains cytosolic ITIM (Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibition motif) and ITSM (Immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif) motifs, and its cytosolic tail is critical for the initiation of inhibitory signals
The key inhibitory receptors in B cells include FcγRIIB and CD22/ Siglec-2

37. CYTOKINE RECEPTORS AND SIGNALING

38. Classes of Cytokine Receptors

40. JAK-STAT Signaling