1. Plant and Intangible Assets
Chapter 9
Chapter 9: Plant and Intangible Assets

2. Major Categories of Plant Assets
There are three major categories of plant assets: Tangible plant assets are long-term assets that have physical substance. Examples include land, buildings, equipment, furniture, and fixtures. Intangible assets are noncurrent assets with no physical substance. Examples include patents, copyrights, trademarks, franchises, and goodwill. Natural resources are acquired for extracting valuable resources to be used in the business. Examples include oil reserves, timber, and other minerals.
This chapter will review the accounting issues related to these three categories.
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3. Accountable Events in the Lives of Plant Assets
Acquisition.
Allocation of the acquisition cost to expense over the asset’s useful life (depreciation).
Sale or disposal.
There are three accountable events to discuss.
When a plant asset is acquired, it is recorded at its historical cost. The next slide will show how this cost is determined.
Once the asset is placed in service, a portion of the asset’s cost is allocated to depreciation expense as the asset becomes older.
Finally, at the end of an asset’s useful life, it’s disposed of and removed from the books and records. The accounting for plant assets usually covers several accounting periods.
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4. Acquisition of Plant Assets
Cost
Asset price = +
Reasonable and necessary costs . . .
The cost of a plant asset includes the purchase price as well as all costs necessary to get the asset in place and ready for its intended use. The purchase price, net of any cash discounts available, is recorded.
Finance charges are not included in the cost of an asset. If a purchase is financed over a period of time, the interest cost is charged as an expense when incurred.
Let’s see how to determine the cost of a plant asset on the next slide.
. . . for getting the asset to the desired location.
. . . for getting the asset ready for use.
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5. Capital Expenditures and Revenue Expenditures
Any material expenditure that will benefit several accounting periods.
Expenditure for ordinary repairs and maintenance.
After a plant asset is purchased, the company may incur additional expenditures on that asset. These expenditures may be for repairs and maintenance, overhauls, upgrading the asset, and similar expenditures. One way to handle these types of expenditures is to treat them as Capital Expenditures and charge the amounts to an asset account on the balance sheet. In some cases, the expenditures may be treated as Revenue Expenditures and charged to current period income as expenses.
For each expenditure subsequent to acquisition of a plant asset, decide if the expenditure is to be treated as a Capital or Revenue expenditure.
Generally, subsequent expenditures for ordinary repairs are treated as revenue expenditures and charged to current period income as expenses. Subsequent expenditures that are for betterments are classified as extraordinary repairs. These should be treated as capital expenditures and charged to the asset account.
To capitalize an expenditure means to charge it to an asset account.
To expense an expenditure means to charge it to an expense account.
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6. as the services are received
Depreciation
The allocation of the cost of a plant asset to expense in the periods in which services are received from the asset.
Balance Sheet
Cost of plant assets
Assets:
Plant and
equipment
Depreciation is a process of cost allocation. The cost of an asset is allocated to expense over its useful life in some rational and systematic manner. Do not confuse asset valuation, an economic concept, with allocation.
The unused portion of the asset’s cost appears on the balance sheet. A portion of the cost is allocated to expense on the income statement each accounting period.
as the services are received
Income Statement
Revenues:
Expenses:
Depreciation
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7. Depreciation Book Value Cost – Accumulated Depreciation Depreciation
Contra-asset
Represents the portion of an asset’s cost that has already been allocated to expense.
Causes of Depreciation
Physical deterioration
Obsolescence
When dealing with depreciation, there are several terms and concepts to understand.
Book value is calculated as the historical cost of the asset minus the accumulated depreciation. Book value is the undepreciated cost of the asset.
Accumulated depreciation represents the depreciation taken on the asset since its purchase. Accumulated depreciation is a contra-asset account and is subtracted from the asset account to determine book value.
Assets are depreciated as we use them to help earn revenue. As assets are used, they incur physical deterioration and obsolescence.
Now, let’s look at some common methods of calculating depreciation expense.
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8. Straight-Line Depreciation
Cost - Residual Value Years of Useful Life
Depreciation
Expense per Year =
Regardless of the method used to calculate depreciation expense, three variables must be known: (1) the asset’s cost; (2) the estimated residual value expected to be received at the end of its useful life, and (3) the estimated useful life of the asset.
When using the straight-line method, depreciation expense is calculated by taking cost minus residual value and dividing by the years of useful life.
Let’s see how this works.
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9. Declining-Balance Method
Depreciation in the early years of an asset’s estimated useful life is higher than in later years.
Part I.
There are several appealing reasons to use a declining-balance method for depreciation. One reason to consider the declining-balance method is to better match depreciation expense with revenue generated. The idea is that a newer asset will generate more revenue in early years rather than later years, so depreciation expense should be higher in the early years of ownership and less in later years. Another reason that the declining-balance method is appealing to use for financial statement reporting is that it is similar to the depreciation method used for tax purposes.
Part II.
Calculating depreciation expense under the double-declining-balance method is a three step process. The first step is to calculate the straight-line depreciation rate. Do this by dividing one hundred percent by the asset’s useful life.
The second step is to calculate the double-declining-balance rate, which is done by multiplying the straight-line rate times two.
The third and final step is to determine depreciation expense. Multiply the double-declining rate times the book value of the asset at the beginning of the period. Under the double-declining-balance method estimated residual value is ignored.
Let’s look at an example.
The double-declining balance depreciation rate is 200% of the straight-line depreciation rate of (1÷Useful Life).
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10. Revising Depreciation Rates
Predicted salvage value
Predicted useful life
So depreciation is an estimate.
You know that salvage value and useful life of a plant asset are both estimates. Like all estimates, new information may come to light that will warrant a revision of a previous estimate. Let’s see how accountants handle the revision of previous estimates.
Over the life of an asset, new information may come to light that indicates the original estimates need to be revised.
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11. Impairment of Plant Assets
If the cost of an asset cannot be recovered through future use or sale, the asset should be written down to its net realizable value.
If an asset’s value decreases and cannot be recovered through future use or sale, the asset is considered to be impaired and should be written down to its net realizable value.
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12. Disposal of Plant and Equipment
Update depreciation to the date of disposal.
Journalize disposal by:
Recording cash received (debit).
Recording a gain (credit)
or loss (debit).
When a plant asset is disposed of, the first thing to do is update depreciation to the date of disposal. After completing the update, the journal entry can be created. The journal entry begins by the recording of a debit to the cash account, if cash was received, or credit to the cash account, if cash was paid by the company. In addition, it must be determined whether a gain or loss is associated with the disposal. A gain is recorded with a credit, just like revenue, and a loss is recorded with a debit, just like an expense account. The entry is completed by removing the plant asset’s cost from the books with a credit, and removing the related accumulated depreciation with a debit. Let’s see how to calculate the gain or loss associated with the disposal.
Removing accumulated depreciation (debit).
Removing the asset cost (credit).
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13. Disposal of Plant and Equipment
If Cash > BV, record a gain (credit).
If Cash < BV, record a loss (debit).
If Cash = BV, no gain or loss.
Recording cash received (debit).
Recording a gain (credit)
or loss (debit).
If the amount of cash received is greater than the book value of the asset (cost less accumulated depreciation), a gain is associated with the disposal.
If the cash received is less than the book value of the asset, a loss will be recorded.
When the amount of cash is exactly equal to the book value of the asset, there will be no gain or loss in connection with the disposal.
Now let’s look at a specific example of disposal of a plant asset.
Removing accumulated depreciation (debit).
Removing the asset cost (credit).
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14. Intangible Assets Characteristics
Noncurrent assets without physical substance.
Often provide exclusive rights or privileges.
Characteristics
Let’s change the subject from disposals of plant assets to intangible assets.
Intangible assets lack physical substance, and that makes it difficult to determine the asset’s useful life or any residual value. Many intangible assets involve exclusive rights or privileges. Let’s review the major types of intangible assets and the related accounting on the next slides.
Useful life is often difficult to determine.
Usually acquired for operational use.
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15. Intangible Assets
Record at current cash equivalent cost, including purchase price, legal fees, and filing fees.
Patents
Copyrights
Leaseholds
Leasehold Improvements
Goodwill
Trademarks and Trade Names
This is a list of the intangible assets to be discussed. Intangible assets are normally recorded at the purchase price plus any legal or related fees.
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16. Depletion of Natural Resources
Depletion is calculated using the
units-of-production method.
Unit depletion rate is calculated as follows:
Total Units of Natural Resource
Cost – Residual Value
Begin the process of calculating depletion expense by determining the depletion expense per unit of natural resource. The numerator of the equation contains the resource cost less any estimated residual value. The denominator of the equation is the estimated total capacity of the natural resource expected to be extracted. For oil, the denominator is expressed in terms of barrels, for coal in tons, for timber in board feet, and the like for other resources.
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17. End of Chapter 9
End of chapter 9.
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