1. Learning and Memory MOD 14-16 - Learning MOD 22-23 – Memory
Questions from Friday

2. Theories on learning: Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning – Pavlov/Watson
Operant Conditioning - Skinner
Observation - Bandura

3. Learning
Learning refers to the relatively permanent change in a subject’s behavior to a given situation brought about by his (or her) repeated experiences in that situation, provided that the behavior change cannot be explained on the basis of native (natural) response tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the subject (for example, fatigue, drugs, etc.).
Based on this definition re-go through the scenarios and decide if they are learning or not

4. Classical Conditioning
Module 14: Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning

5. A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience.

6. Ivan Pavlov ( )
famous for discovery of classical conditioning: learning occurs through association.

7. Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response.
Form of learning by association

8. Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to.
Stimulus-Response
Stimulus - anything in the environment that one can respond to.
Response – any behavior or action.

9. Stimulus-Response Relationship

10. Stimulus-Response Relationship

11. 4 Components to classical conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)

12. Module 14: Classical Conditioning
COMPONENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

13. Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that triggers a response reflexively and automatically.
Classical conditioning cannot happen with a unconditioned stimulus.

14. Unconditioned Response (UR)
An automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.
The relationship between the UCS and UCR must be reflexive and automatic, not learned

15. Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A previously neutral stimulus that,
through learning, gains the power to cause a response.

16. Conditioned Response (CR)
The response to the conditioned stimulus.
Usually the same behavior as the UCR

17. The process of developing a learned response.
Acquisition
The process of developing a learned response.
The subject learns a new response (CR) to a previously neutral stimulus (CS)

18. Extinction
In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone.
In classical conditioning, the continual presentation of the CS without the UCS

19. Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery
Module 14: Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s Discovery

20. Ivan Pavlov ( )
famous for discovery of classical conditioning: learning occurs through association.

21. Pavlov’s Research Apparatus

22. Pavlov’s Experiment

23. Generalization & Discrimination
Generalization: Producing the same response to two similar stimuli.
The more similar the substitute stimulus is to the original used in conditioning, the stronger the generalized response
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses.
The subject learns that one stimuli predicts the UCS and the other does not.

24. John Watson and the Classical Conditioning of Emotions
Module 14: Classical Conditioning
John Watson and the Classical Conditioning of Emotions

25. John Watson & Behaviorism
Founder of behaviorism: The theory that psychology should only study observable behaviors, not mental processes.
Little Albert experiment

26. Little Albert 11-month-old infant
Watson and Rosalie Rayner, conditioned Albert to be frightened of white rats
Led to questions about experimental ethics

27. Little Albert – After Conditioning

28. Little Albert - Generalization

29. Cognition and Biological Predispositions
Module 14: Classical Conditioning

30. What effect does cognition have on learning?
All mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering.
What effect does cognition have on learning?

31. Robert Rescorla ( )
Developed theory that emphasized importance of cognitive processes in classical conditioning.
Pointed out that subjects had to determine (think) whether the CS was a reliable predictor of the US

32. The Nature of Operant Conditioning
Module 15: Operant Conditioning

33. Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior.
The frequency will increase if the consequence is reinforcing to the subject.
The frequency will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject.

34. Operant Conditioning

35. Module 15: Operant Conditioning
The Law of Effect
Module 15: Operant Conditioning

36. Edward Thorndike ( )
Author of the law of effect, the principle that forms the basis of operant conditioning.
Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently.
Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently.
Created puzzle boxes for research on cats

37. Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber
B.F. Skinner ( )
Behavioral psychologist who developed the theory of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply it in the real world.
Designed the Skinner Box, or operant chamber

38. Components of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement: Positive & Negative
Punishment
Shaping
Discrimination & Extinction

39. Reinforcement/Punishment
Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior.
Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior.
The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

40. The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing
Reinforcement - Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behavior. Divided into positive and negative reinforcement
Positive: (Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior) by following it with a desirable event or state (like chocolate…)
Negative: (anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior) by following it with the removal or decrease of an undesirable event or state. (like getting out of prison)
Punishment - Any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior.
The subject determines if a consequence is reinforcing or punishing

41. Positive Reinforcement
Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state.
The subject receives something they want
Will strengthen the behavior

42. Negative Reinforcement
anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal or decrease of an undesirable event or state.
Something the subject doesn’t like is removed
Will strengthen the behavior

43. Positive/Negative Reinforcement

44. An undesirable event following a behavior
2 Types of Punishment
An undesirable event following a behavior
A desirable state or event ends following a behavior

45. used to establish a new behaviors.
Shaping
Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one;
used to establish a new behaviors.
Sheldon shaping penny

46. The ability to distinguish between two similar signals or stimuli and
Discrimination
The ability to distinguish between two similar signals or stimuli and
produce different responses.
Learning to respond to one stimuli but not to a similar stimuli

47. Extinction
In operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it.
The subject no longer responds since the reinforcement or punishment has stopped.

48. The Nature of Observational Learning
Module 16: Observational Learning

49. Observational Learning
Learning by observing others.

50. Modeling Model: The person observed in observational learning.
Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

51. Observational Learning: Albert Bandura’s Experiments
Module 16: Observational Learning

52. Albert Bandura ( )
Canadian-American psychologist - major figure in the study of observational learning
Studies the consequences a model has on subjects
Bobo Doll experiments
Social learning theory

53. Three experimental conditions: The model was praised.
Bobo Doll Experiments
Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior toward a bobo doll
Three experimental conditions:
The model was praised.
The model was punished.
The model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior.

54. Bobo Doll Experiments

55. Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior.
Vicarious Learning
Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior.

56. Modeling Requirements
Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur:
Attention
Retention
Ability to reproduce the behavior
Motivation

57. Observational Learning, A Biological Perspective: Mirror Neurons
Module 16: Observational Learning

58. Mirror Neurons
Brain cells located in the front of the brain that activate when a person performs certain actions or when the person observes others.

59. What about racism?
Drs. Mamie and Kenneth Clark designed the famous 1940’s Doll Test
Basis for Brown vs. Board of Education: Desegregation in schools

60. Memory pick up a study guide!
Mod 22-23

61. Cognition Domain: Information processing model
“I think, therefor I am”

62. Module Overview: Warm up
Using your books look up and define Mod 22 terms:
Encoding - process of getting information into the memory system.
Automatic Processing -
Effortful Processing –
Storage -The retention of encoded information over time.
Rehearsal –
Retrieval - The process of getting information out of memory storage.
Serial Position Effect –
primacy-
recency-

63. Information Processing Model

64. Automatic/Effortful Processing

65. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German philosopher who did pioneering memory studies.
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

66. Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorized
Overlearning
Continuing to rehearse even after it has been memorized
Rehearsing past the point of mastery
Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

67. Serial Position Effect
The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily.
Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list
Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

68. A memory trick or technique.
Mnemonic Device
A memory trick or technique.
“Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale
“People say you could have odd lots of good years” as a way to remember how to spell “psychology”

69. Organizing information into meaningful units.
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units.
More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

70. Three distinct storage systems: Look up… (Mod 22)
Sensory Memory-
Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) -
Long-Term Memory –
Storage and the Brain: (Speth will cover but if you want your notes in order leave about 6-8 lines or so in between these two topics)
Retrieval: Look up…
Recall-
Recognition-
Context Effect-
State Dependent-

71. Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system.
Sensory Memory
Brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system.
Iconic store – visual information
Echoic store – sound information
Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

72. Short-Term/working Memory
memory system that contains information you are consciously aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten.
Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information
Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed
Also called “working memory”

73. Holds memories without conscious effort
Long-Term Memory
The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Holds memories without conscious effort

74. Storage: Memory and the Brain
Module 22: Information Processing

75. Long-Term Potentiation
An increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency that occurs when the sequence of neurons that represents a particular memory fires repeatedly;
believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory

76. The memory of facts and experiences. Processed through the hippocampus
Explicit Memory
The memory of facts and experiences.
Processed through the hippocampus

77. The memory of skills and procedures. Processed through the cerebellum
Implicit Memory
The memory of skills and procedures.
Processed through the cerebellum

78. Explicit & Implicit Memories

79. Memory and the Hippocampus
The Case of Clive Wearing
Damage to the hippocampus would result in the inability to form new explicit memories, but the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories

80. The process of getting information out of memory storage
Retrieval
The process of getting information out of memory storage
Two forms of retrieval
Recall
Recognition

81. Recall
The type of retrieval in which you must search for information that you previously stored as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

82. Recognition
The type of retrieval in which you must identify items you learned earlier, as on a multiple choice test.

83. Context Effect
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the information.

84. State Dependent Memory
The enhanced ability to retrieve information when you are in the same physical and emotional state you were in when you encoded the information.
The retrieval state is congruent with the encoding state

85. Forgetting and Memory Construction
Module 23
Forgetting and Memory Construction

86. Information Processing Model
Encoding – The process of getting information into the memory system.
Storage – The retention of encoded information in memory over time.
Retrieval – The process of getting encoded information out of memory storage.

87. People fail to encode information because: It is unimportant to them
Encoding Failures
People fail to encode information because:
It is unimportant to them
It is not necessary to know the information
A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

88. Permastore Memory
Long-term memories that are especially resistant to forgetting and that are likely to last a lifetime.

89. Interference
A retrieval problem when one memory gets in the way of remembering another
Two types of interference:
Proactive interference - When an older memory disrupts the recall of a newer memory.
Retroactive interference - When a more recent memory disrupts the recall of an older memory.

90. In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory,
Repression
In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory,
the process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious.
Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories
Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

91. Module 23: Forgetting and Memory Construction

92. How do we make memory? The constructed nature of Memory
Memories, are not like a video tape, they are formed as bits and pieces.
People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory

93. Found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Elizabeth Loftus ( )
Psychologist (at University of California, Irvine) whose research established the constructed nature of memory.
Found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Demonstrated the misinformation effect

94. Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into a memory of an event.
Affects eyewitness testimony
One sheet said smashed one said contacted

95. Gary wells
American Psychologist renown for his research on the inaccuracy of eye witness testimony
problems with police lineups
Work has made it to the supreme court
Work has lead to freeing hundreds of people through reexamining cases and DNA through The Innocent Project
Been on 60min, CNN…