1. https://www. youtube. com/watch

2. Learning Objectives
To be able to understand the theoretical approaches to arousal.

3. Theories of Arousal
We need the appropriate level of arousal / activation for the action we are to perform (known as optimal arousal), whether it is digesting a meal or catching a cricket ball.
The effects of arousal can be either positive or negative.
High arousal can cause us to worry & become anxious, which is negative if it isn’t controlled.
Raising arousal level can also cause a state of ‘readiness’ to perform – this is largely a positive aspect & can enhance performance.

4. Arousal and Performance
Drive Theory states that as arousal increases so does the dominant habit.
Tip: think of a ‘closed skill’ e.g. A tennis serve.
If you have learnt that skill so it is very stable and enduring (long lasting) then in high pressure situations e.g. serving for the championship you will be able to serve very well. However if you have not learnt how to serve very well then the pressure will have an even more adverse effect on your serve.

5. DRIVE THEORY
Dominant Habit
Arousal

6. DRIVE THEORY (Hull, 1951) (NB – ‘drive’: directed, motivated or ‘energised’ behaviour that an individual has towards achieving a certain goal)
Key component is performer’s level of skill & sees the relationship between arousal & performance as linear: performance increases in proportion to arousal.
A very high arousal level would result in a high performance level, provided skill is well-learned.
However, if the skill is not well-learned, performance of skill will deteriorate as arousal increases.

7. Drive theory conti………..
This theory helps explain why beginners find it difficult to perform well under pressure. Often beginners skill level decreases if they are competing in a relay race using new skills, e.g. football dribbling race.
However, also explains how experienced athletes perform better under pressure using well-learned skills, e.g. good tennis players play better against stronger opposition.
Clearly the impact of arousal on performance is complex, consider the following:

8. Drive theory conti………..
Ed Moses, Olympic medal winner (1976 & ’84 400m hurdles) said ‘the way I get the best out is by not expecting an easy race. It’s easier when there’s pressure. You get emotional & you go out to perform’.
Bob Tisdall described a fellow Cambridge student who desperately wanted to win a race for the university to get a ‘blue’. He especially stayed on a fourth year to have another chance. Tisdall reported that the student ‘froze in the starting blocks in the finals. We had to pick him up and he was stiff, like a corpse’.

9. Drive theory conti………..
Arousal improved Ed Moses’ performance but devastated the performance of the Cambridge student. Both athletes were performing well-learned tasks. Drive theory fails to explain this outcome, & its focus on the well-learned task cannot be applied to the many sports skills which combine both well-learned & novel elements.

11. Inverted U Theory
The Drive Theory does not explain why some sporting performances improve and some decline in different circumstances.
The Inverted U Theory states that arousal must be at an ‘optimal level’ for peak performance. If arousal is too low then the athlete must ‘psych’ themselves up and if arousal becomes too high it turns to ANXIETY.

12. Inverted U Theory
High
Performance
Low
Optimal Arousal
Arousal

13. Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
This theory accounts for some of the criticisms of the drive theory and this inverted ‘U’ relationship exists in a number of different circumstances:
Activity type – fine movements & complex skills (which require large amount of attention) require a lower arousal level, e.g. putting in golf / snooker shots / pistol shooting (high arousal interferes with fine muscle movement, co-ordination & concentration). Whereas tackling in football or rugby requires a high level of arousal (which helps skills requiring speed or strength).

14. Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
Level of expertise – a beginner needs only very low levels of arousal to perform well. Because control of the skill is not yet automatic, i.e. a novice may lose concentration or become anxious, therefore low levels result in optimum performance. In contrast, such low levels of arousal will have no effect on the elite performer, who needs much higher levels to produce optimum performance

15. Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
Personality – personality types who enjoy high levels of excitement & are generally more extrovert can cope in a high-arousal situation. People who are more introverted are general more likely to perform well under low-arousal conditions.

16. Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
This theory accounts for some of the criticisms of the drive theory and this inverted ‘U’ relationship exists in a number of different circumstances:
Activity type – fine movements & complex skills (which require large amount of attention) require a lower arousal level, e.g. putting in golf / snooker shots / pistol shooting (high arousal interferes with fine muscle movement, co-ordination & concentration). Whereas tackling in football or rugby requires a high level of arousal (which helps skills requiring speed or strength).

17. Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
Level of expertise – a beginner needs only very low levels of arousal to perform well. Because control of the skill is not yet automatic, i.e. a novice may lose concentration or become anxious, therefore low levels result in optimum performance. In contrast, such low levels of arousal will have no effect on the elite performer, who needs much higher levels to produce optimum performance

18. Inverted ‘U’ theory conti…..
Personality – personality types who enjoy high levels of excitement & are generally more extrovert can cope in a high-arousal situation. People who are more introverted are general more likely to perform well under low-arousal conditions.

20. AROUSAL THEORIES (1)
DRIVE THEORY A theory of arousal that proposes a linear relationship between arousal and performance; as arousal increases so does the quality of performance. Devised by Hull in (1943) and Spence & Spence (1966) Is concerned with a proportional linear relationship between arousal and performance.

21. Performance = Habit strength X Drive
DRIVE THEORY
Performance = Habit strength X Drive
P = H D
The more an elite sports person is aroused the better their performance due to the dominant response being chosen is habitual.
The more a beginner sports person is aroused the dominant response may be incorrect and high levels of arousal can cause a deterioration in performance.

22. PROBLEMS WITH DRIVE THEORY
The habitual behaviour/ dominant response is not always the correct one (think of beginners)
By increasing drive (arousal) performers often resort to previously learned skills because they are dominant but may be incorrect.
Even highly skilled players ‘choke’ in highly charged situations.

23. AROUSAL THEORIES (2)
INVERTED U THEORY A theory of arousal that considers that optimal performance occurs when the performer reaches an optimal level of arousal. Devised by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) Is concerned with the optimal level of arousal being found through observations of performance. Most athletes and coaches can relate to this theory

24. Each athlete has their own optimal level of arousal.
INVERTED U THEORY
At low levels of arousal, performance will be below par meaning that the athlete is not psyched up.
As arousal increases so does performance, up to an optimal point. After this point, further increases in arousal lead to declines in performance.
Each athlete has their own optimal level of arousal.

25. Each athlete has their own optimal level of arousal.
INVERTED U THEORY
At low levels of arousal, performance will be below par meaning that the athlete is not psyched up.
As arousal increases so does performance, up to an optimal point. After this point, further increases in arousal lead to declines in performance.
Each athlete has their own optimal level of arousal.

26. PROBLEMS WITH INVERTED U THEORY
Critics question if optimal arousal always occurs at the mid-point of the curve.
One curve does not explain the different optimal levels of arousal needed for simple and complex tasks.

27. AROUSAL THEORIES (3)
CATASTROPHE THEORY A theory that predicts a rapid decline in performance resulting from the combination of high cognitive anxiety and increasing somatic anxiety. Devised by Hardy and Frazey (1987) Is a development of the Inverted U theory but involves a faster and more dramatic reduction in performance. It is more a model than theory because it tries to predict human behaviour rather than explain it.

28. CATASTROPHE THEORY Point A Cognitive anxiety is high.
Somatic anxiety is low.
Performance is enhanced.
Point B
Cognitive anxiety is high.
Somatic anxiety is high.
Performance can deteriorate.
Point D
Performance does not return to original level immediately even though performer is trying to decrease arousal.
Point C
Performance still deteriorating.

29. It would be very difficult to recover from this point.
CATASTROPHE THEORY
Physiological arousal is related to performance in an inverted ‘U’ fashion when the athlete is not worried or has low cognitive anxiety state anxiety.
If cognitive anxiety is high, the increases in arousal pass a point of optimal arousal and a rapid decline in performance occurs (the catastrophe).
It would be very difficult to recover from this point.

31. TASK Complete the questions on the accompanying sheets.
Try and relate your answers to a sport of your choice.