1. Chapter 8 Memory

2. FALSE CONFESSIONS Articles Due today! Please put them on my desk.
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3. Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

4. The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

5. Studying Memory: Information Processing Models
Preview Question 1: How do psychologists describe the human memory system?
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Monitor
(Retrieval)
Sequential Process

6. Encoding, storage or retrieval??
Continuing to pronounce nuclear as nucular…
A failure of which?

7. Information Processing
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

9. Sensory Registers
All of our senses have registers, but the visual and auditory have been studied most extensively.
Virtually unlimited capacity, but information disappears from them quickly.
Auditory information fades more slowly than visual.

10. The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
Sensory Memory
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss. 20 40 60 80
Percent Recognized
0.15
0.30
0.50
1.00
Time (Seconds)

11. The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long

12. Modifications to the Three-Stage Model
Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

13. Cocktail Party Effect
Broadbent Theory=Filtering out surrounding conversations. You could describe basic characteristic or people, but not topic of conversation.

14. Working Memory
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

15. Encoding We encode info in two ways: Automatic Processing
Effortful Processing

16. Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed.
However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.
Preview Question 2: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

17. Encoding Automatic Processing Unconscious encoding
Location, time and frequency
Retracing steps to find your keys…
Also becomes automatic with practice
Driving to a friends house…

18. Encoding Effortful Processing Attention / conscious effort
Studying for a test
Through rehearsal, Effortful can become automatic

19. Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following:
Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

20. Effortful Processing
Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and accessible memories.
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
© Bananastock/ Alamy

21. Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
( )

22. Rehearsal
The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.

23. Memory Effects Primacy Effect: Remember first words, items
Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time.
Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.
Primacy Effect: Remember first words, items
Recency Effect: Remember last items, words

24. Memory Effects Next-In-Line Effect Self-Reference Effect
Don’t remember what someone has said if we are next…
Self-Reference Effect
We encode better when issue relates to us

25. What We Encode Encoding by meaning Encoding by images
Encoding by organization
Preview Question 3:What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories?

26. Encoding Meaning
Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

27. Which is most effective?

28. Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.

29. Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery and organizational devices in aiding memory.

30. Mnemonic Devices Key Word System Term Key Word Mental Picture
Broca’s Area Tom Brokaw News cast (talking)
Parietal Lobe Paraná biting your toe
Amygdala Amy Old Psycho girlfriend = Fear
Hippocampus ???? ?????

31. Organizing Information for Encoding
Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories.
Chunking
Hierarchies

32. Chunking FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks
The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks

33. Acronyms are another way of chunking information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet

34. Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

35. Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

36. Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

37. Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.

38. Capacity M U T G I K T L R S Y P George Miller
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956).
Ready?
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller

39. Chunking FBI TWA CIA IBM 4 chunks
The capacity of the working memory may be increased by “chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks

40. The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541 …
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec.

41. Working Memory Duration

42. Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Events
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

43. Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store.
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.

44. LTM Long Term-Potentiation (LTP) Leading Theory for LTM
Neural networks strengthen memory
Neural connections gradually strengthen through rehearsal over time (memory strengthened)
Nerve cell’s genes produce synapse strengthening proteins /enabling LTM formation
Epinephrine and/or cortisol affect long term
retention

45. LTM DEMO
On a scratch sheet of paper, write down the names of the presidents (as many as you can)
You will have 5 minutes.

46. Memory Feats

47. Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years

48. Types of Long Term Memory
Episodic Memory= events experienced in a specific time and place
Semantic Memory= facts and concepts
Procedural Memory= motor skills and habits
Emotional Memory= learned emotional responses
Schema = a set of beliefs or expectations about something that is based on past experience; framework
can influence the amount of attention you pay to a given event

49. Types of LTM