2. Carbon a very important element…
How are large molecules like carbohydrates constructed.
Describe the general features of Condensation and Hydrolysis reactions

3. Carbon a very important element…
Organic chemistry is the study of chemical reactions involving carbon:
All biological molecules that we shall consider are made of carbon except water (H2O).
Carbon atoms can join together to form chains and rings, they can also join other atoms (H, O, N, P, S) forming many different molecules with a wide variety of structures and properties which in turn results in many different functions.

4. Molecular modelling kits:
Use the ‘moly mod’ kit to assemble a chain and a ring of carbon atoms (Black spheres).
Where you have spare holes on the carbon, fill it with a short bond and hydrogen (White spheres).
How many covalent bonds can each carbon make to another atom?
Explain with a diagram why this is? (use your gcse chemistry knowledge)

6. C H = C H
Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared between two atoms. These bonds are very strong and form new molecules

7. Carbon a very important element…
Organic chemistry is the study of chemical reactions involving carbon:
All biological molecules that we shall consider are made of carbon except water (H2O).
Carbon atoms can join together to form chains and rings, they can also join other atoms (H, O, N, P, S) forming many different molecules with a wide variety of structures and properties which in turn results in many different functions.

8. What common structures do we see in organic chemistry of biological molecules:
Several carbons form a chain:
Carbon- Carbon bonds:
Carbon –Oxygen Bonds:

9. Monomers and Polymers:
The term monomer refers to a single, small molecule, many of which can join together to make a larger molecule , a polymer
Biological polymers:
Monomer
Polymer
Carbohydrate
Protein
Nucleic Acid

10. OH HO Condensation and Hydrolysis reactions:
Making and breaking polymers
Monomer 1 OH
Monomer 2 HO
Monomer 1 2 O
H2O

11. HO OH Condensation and Hydrolysis reactions:
Making and breaking polymers
Monomer 2 HO
Monomer 1 OH
Hydrolysis, water added and covalent bond broken.
Condensation water removed covalent bond made.
H2O
Monomer 1 2 O

12. Carbohydrates 1: Simple Sugars
State the structural differences between alpha and beta glucose.
Describe the formation and breakage of glycosidic bonds in the synthesis and hydrolysis of a dissaccharide
Describe the molecular structure of alpha-glucose as an example of a monosaccharide carbohydrate
Explain how the structure of glucose relates to its function in living organisms.

13. Carbohydrates
Found in 10% of the organic matter of a cell their functions are
ENERGY SOURCE- released from glucose during Respiration
ENERGY STORE- eg. Starch
STRUCTURE- eg. Cellulose.
Carbohydrate means hydrated carbon therefore for every C atom there is the equivalent of a water molecule.
Represented like: Cn(H2O)n

14. Simple sugars: 3- carbon monosaccharides TRIOSE sugars
A monomer of a Carbohydrate sugar is called a monosaccharide.
Three different types of monosaccharides exist.
3- carbon monosaccharides TRIOSE sugars
5-carbon monosaccharides PENTOSE sugars
6- carbon monosaccharides HEXOSE sugars
Occur in nature as ring structures
They have similar properties: Water soluble/ Sweet tasting/ form crystals

15. What is this molecule?

16. Glucose:
Chain
Ring

17. How do you remember ? Can you spot the difference?
The ring structure can form in two different ways
Alpha (α) Glucose
Beta (β) Glucose
Can you spot the difference?
How do you remember ?

18. 2

19. Draw two A glycosidic bond is formed. Making Maltose (a disaccharide)
Alpha (α) Glucose
Draw two
A glycosidic bond is formed.

21. Other Disaccharides

22. Spot the difference!

23. Keep doing this and what do you get?

24. Unlike glucose Starch is water insoluble. Why is this important?
Starch contains two types of polysaccharides.
Amylose and Amylopectin
Unlike glucose Starch is water insoluble.
Why is this important?

25. The 1st molecule of starch is AMYLOSE
Alpha glucose these are linked -(1 → 4)-, with the ring oxygen atoms all on the same side,
The 1st molecule of starch is AMYLOSE
a polysaccharide of alpha glucose
Iodine molecules get trapped inside this coil this causes a solution of Brown potassium idodide solution to turn Blue/black

26. What do you think the name of this linkage?
2nd molecule found in Starch is Amylopectin.
A branched polysaccharide.
amylopectin about one residue in every twenty is also linked -(1 → 6)- forming branch-points
What do you think the name of this linkage?

27. Extension + Fascination

28. Starch granule in a chloroplast
Starch granule in potato

29. Glycogen
“animal starch”, identical in FUNCTION: polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers (α 1-4 linked) so that it can be broken down by enzymes releasing glucose for respiration.
Differs in STRUCTURE. α 1-4 linked glucose chains are shorter and more branches, therefore it is more compact and forms glycogen granules in animal cells mainly liver and muscle.

30. Hepatocytes with glycogen granules.

31. Carbohydrates: structural units
Compare and contrast the structure and function of amylose and cellulose
Explain how the function of cellulose relates to its function in living organisms.
Where would you find Cellulose?

32. Cellulose is made up of β Glucose monomers through many condensation reactions.
They differ from Amylose because they form long straight chains.
Rememeber Amylose α1-4 linkage is bent forcing the amylose chain into a tight coil.
Condensation removal of H2O
How does this differ from amylose?

34. Only α glucose can be respired.
Eating celery burns more calories than it provides in a DIET. (popular opinion)
Does the science back this up?
Celery contains lots of cellulose which is made up of glucose monomers !
Animal and plants have enzymes which break α glucose but not β glucose . This is because the enzymes recognise molecules by shape the β glucose does not fit into the active site of the enzymes in the respiratory pathway.
Only α glucose can be respired.

35. Cellulose is not a storage molecule but a structural molecule.
The cellulose polymers contain about 10,000 beta-glucose monomers.
These are called cellulose chains.
Cellulose is the most abundant structural polysaccharide.
They are much stronger than Amylose,

36. Cellulsoe fibres
The straight Cellulose chains can line up adjacent to each other where hydrogen bonds form between the many OH groups.
Despite Hydrogen bonds being weak interactions the shear number means that the links between the cellulose chains are very strong.
Several hundred chains line up making Microfibrils, which in turn line up making Macrofibrils (page 96).

37. Other structural polysaccharides.
Insects Exoskeleton: Chitin
Bacterial Cell wall: Peptidoglycan. l l l

38. LIPIDS