1. Forces of Change Figure 18-1 External Demographic Characteristics
Technological Advancements
Market Changes
Social and Political Pressures
The Need for Change
Internal
Human Resource Problem/Prospects
Change comes about as a result of many internal and external factors – sometimes these factors work together to promote change.
Let’s explore each of these external and internal forces in more detail.

2. Lewin’s Change Model Changing Refreezing Unfreezing
Creates the motivation to change
Benchmarking Data
Financial data, emerging trends
1. Kurt Lewin developed a three-stage model of planned change which explained how to initiate, manage, and stabilize the change process. The stages include:
a. unfreezing,
b. changing, and
c. refreezing.
Unfreezing
Creates the motivation to change
Benchmarking Data - Benchmarking is a technique that can be used to help unfreeze an organization. This is a process by which a company compares its performance with that of high performing companies.
Financial data, emerging trends
Encourages the replacement of old behaviors and attitudes with those desired by management
Entails devising ways to reduce barriers to change
The aim of the unfreezing stage is to create the motivation to change. Individuals are encouraged to replace old behaviors and attitudes with the new desired behaviors and attitudes. The could be brought about by comparing your firm with a major competitor and finding out they are more efficient, more profitable, and more successful at retaining talented employees.
Changing
Provides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at things
Helps employees learn new concepts or points of view
Role models, mentors, experts, benchmarking results, and training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change
The changing stage involves learning new information, models, or perspectives to help employees learn new preferred concepts or points of view. You might need to include employee development seminars, training, or hiring different people to perform certain functions within the organization.
Refreezing
Helps employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things
Positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired change
Coaching and modeling help reinforce the stability of change
Change is stabilized during refreezing by helping employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into normal procedures. This is really the follow-up to training, etc. to make sure that we are using what we’ve learned- through seminars, training classes, new people & perspectives.
Assumptions of Lewin’s Change Model
The change process involves learning something new, as well as discontinuing current attitudes, behaviors, and organizational practices
Change will not occur unless there is motivation to change
People are the hub of all organizational changes
Resistance to change is found even when the goals are highly desirable
Effective change requires reinforcing new behaviors, attitudes, and organizational practices
Changing
Provides new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at things
Refreezing
Helps employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things

3. A Systems Model of Change
Figure 18-3
Target Elements of Change
Organizing Arrangements
Inputs
Outputs
Internal
Strengths
Weaknesses
External
Opportunities
Threats
Internal
Organizational
level
Department/
group level
Individual level
Social
Factors
Strategy
Goals
People
The systems model of change suggests that any change causes more change in an organizational system and provides a framework for diagnosing what to change and how to evaluate the success of the model.
Inputs:
Mission statement: Summarizes “why” an organization exists.
Strategic plan: a long-term plan outlining actions needed to achieve desired results.
Target elements of change – components of an organization that may be changed.
Methods

4. Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Organizational Change
Table 18-1
Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Organizational Change
Step
Description
Unfreeze the organization by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed
Establish a sense of urgency
Create a cross-functional, cross-level group of people with enough power to lead the change
Create the guiding coalition
Create a vision and strategic plan to guide the change process
Develop a vision and strategy
Create and implement a communication strategy that consistently communicates the new vision and strategic plan
Communicate the change-vision

5. Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Organizational Change
Table 18-1
Kotter’s Eight Steps for Leading Organizational Change
Step
Description
Eliminate barriers to change, use target elements of change to transform the organization
Empower broad-based action
Plan for and create short-term “wins” or improvements
Generate short-term wins
The guiding coalition uses credibility from short-terms wins to create change. Additional people are brought into the change process as change cascades throughout the organization
Consolidate gains and produce more change
Reinforce the changes by highlighting connections between new behaviors and processes and organizational success
Anchor new approaches in the culture

6. Organizational Development
Organizational Development a set of techniques or tools that are used to implement organizational change
Organization development: consists of planned efforts to help persons work and live together more effectively, over time, in their organizations. The goal is for an organization to improve itself as a human and effective system.
OD involves – profound, cultural change
OD is value loaded – values cooperation, self-control by employees rather than institutional control, participative management.
OD diagnosis a problem and takes steps to fix it.
OD is process oriented- focus on the process rather than the content of specific changes. For example, they may suggest a coaching process, or problem-solving, decision-making, conflict handling processes rather than being proscriptive about the content of those processes.
Examples: team building, role-analysis

7. Characteristics of Organizational Development
OD Involves Profound Change
OD is Value-Loaded
OD is a Diagnosis/ Prescription Cycle
OD is Process-Oriented
OD involves – profound, cultural change
OD is value loaded – values cooperation, self-control by employees rather than institutional control, participative management.
OD diagnosis a problem and takes steps to fix it.
OD is process oriented- focus on the process rather than the content of specific changes. For example, they may suggest a coaching process, or problem-solving, decision-making, conflict handling processes rather than being proscriptive about the content of those processes.
Examples: team building, role-analysis

8. Why People Resist Change in the Workplace
An individuals’ predisposition toward change
Surprise and fear of the unknown
Climate of mistrust
Fear of failure
Loss of status and/or job security
Change is often resisted although many companies are hiring people who they believe will be able and adaptable to change.
Individual Resistance –
Individual predisposition - Some people are more prone to adapt to change than others. This characteristic of adaptability comes from past experiences with change and an overall optimism or cynicism that an individual may have. The individual’s frame of reference or specific situation will determine the extent to which they embrace the change. If there is a change initiative within a university to offer more courses at night, the professors who don’t mind doing that and are flexible will not be threatened by that change but others who aren’t used to that and find it very inconvenient will be. Also, we just prefer things that are familiar, hard to break a habit even if its good for you
Fear of the unknown – not sure the change will work to their advantage and will be good for them
Climate of mistrust –
Lack of information – if the person doesn’t understand the need or reason for the change they will be less likely to embrace it. May feel that it is done just for the sake of change. Mention how when I did ja focus groups to develop a new selection system, people were always very skeptical at first if there wasn’t adequate communication about the purpose of our meetings.
Resentment towards the initiator – if it seems arbitrary, unreasonable, or for self-serving reasons it may cause resentment towards the person who is initiating it. The concerns of the people’s who’s lives are being changed is a major factor in getting it done well.
Loss of status or job - Basically, people don’t want to lose power that an organizational change might cause.
The structure and norms of behaviors within and across functional areas may be upset causing a new set of relationships that need to be developed. If norms are very ingrained and the organizational change influences these norms people will resist it because then predictable modes of behavior become unpredictable – people knew how to get things done and now that has changed.
Like on Survivor when the tribes merge, all new alliances and power changes occur and relationships people have worked hard to build are threatened by new players.

9. Why People Resist Change in the Workplace
Peer pressure
Disruption of cultural traditions and/or group relationships
Personality conflicts
Lack of tact and/or poor timing
Nonreinforcing reward systems
Peer Pressure – it people you work with are resistant to change it may be hard to behave differently without harming the relationship with peers.
Non-reinforcing reward systems – If “what is in it for me” is not made clear, there is more likely to be resistance. That could mean long-term positive impact, rather than short-term but the individual still needs to see that the change will have value to the organization and he/her individually.

10. Overcoming Resistance to Change
Approach
Commonly Used in Situations Where:
Advantages
Drawbacks
Can be very time consuming if lots of people are involved
Once persuaded, people will often help with implementation of change
There is a lack of information or inaccurate information & analysis
Education and Communication
Can be very time consuming if participators design an inappropriate change
People who participate will be committed to the implementation of change
The initiators do not have all the information they need to design the change & others have considerable power to resist
Participation and Involvement
These approaches are similar to the influence strategies that we discussed.
Education and communication: To let people know why, how, when, what consequences may be. Make sure people know what is happening and WHY! (analogous to Rational Persuasion approach)
Is time consuming but is a necessity to get the change implemented.
Participation and involvement: To draw out ideas and foster personal commitment. If a person has helped bring about a change it is more likely to be accepted by them. Get people involved in the change process! Research suggests that participation is a key way to overcome resistance to change. (analogous to the Consultative approach)
May take a lot of time and its hard to know where to draw the line in terms of the number and level of employees to involve.
Facilitation and support: To accept anxieties and help people cope through training, counseling. If people are having trouble adjusting to the change this is the best strategy but it is time consuming and could still fail.
Can be very time consuming, expensive and still fail
No other approach works as well with adjustment problems
People are resisting because of adjustment problems
Facilitation and Support

11. Overcoming Resistance to Change
Approach
Commonly Used in Situations Where:
Advantages
Drawbacks
Can be too expensive in may cases if it alerts other to negotiate for compliance
Sometimes it is a relatively easy way to avoid major change
Someone or some group will clearly lose out in a change and where that group has considerable power to resist
Negotiation and Agreement
Can lead to future problems if people feel manipulated
It can be relatively quick and inexpensive
Other tactics will not work or are too expensive
Manipulation and Co-optation
Negotiation and agreement: To offer incentives and exchanges in return for agreement to change. If a group has a lot to lose as a result of the change this may work, like in a labor dispute situation. But it is expensive and time-consuming and other groups who didn’t get to negotiate may be resentful. (analogous to compromise conflict management approach)
Manipulation and co-optation: To selectively distort communication - spin, and give resisters a role in the process albeit a non-critical role. Only if other tactics won’t work, may be a quick inexpensive solution but can lead to future problems if people feel manipulated.
Explicit and implicit coercion: To use or threaten to use managerial authority to impose negative consequences. Fast and quick, but people can be left unhappy and mad at the initiator. (analogous to the Pressure influence tactic.)
Can be very risky ad leave people mad at the initiators
It is speedy and can overcome any kind of resistance
Speed is essential and where the change initiators possess considerable power
Explicit and Implicit Coercion

12. Stress
Stress behavioral, physical, or psychological response to stressors
Stress is not merely nervous tension
Stress can have positive consequences
Stress is not something to be avoided
The complete absence of stress is death
Stress is inevitable
Stress is a behavioral, physical, or psychological response to stressors. Stressors are environmental factors that produce stress.
Many researchers have studied the impact of stress on individual and organizational health. Hans Selye noted that stress can be caused by both positive and negative events in one’s life but can have the same physical and psychological impact. For example, having a new baby or new job or new house are positive events but can significantly increase one’s stress as well as the loss of a loved one, difficulties at work, financial problems, etc.
Eustress – stress that is good or produces a positive outcome

13. Occupational Stress Potential Stressors Outcomes Individual Level
Figure 18-5
Potential Stressors
Outcomes
Individual Level
Psychological/
Attitudinal
Group Level
Behavioral
Cognitive
Appraisal
Coping
Strategies
Moderators
Organizational Level
Cognitive
There are four major types of stressors:
Individual (directly associated with job duties) (e.g., role ambiguity or overload, eye strain from computers, snow plow operator in sub-zero temperatures)
Group (caused by group dynamics and managerial behavior),
Organizational (e.g., organizational culture), and
Extra-organizational (factors outside the organization) like work/family balance issues, socioeconomic status
Stress is inevitable so to minimize the negative impact of stress on our physical and mental health we need to develop coping mechanisms.
Extraorganizational
Level
Physical Stress

14. Moderators of Occupational Stress
Moderators variables that cause the relationships between stressors, perceived stress and outcomes to be weaker for some and stronger for others
What kinds of things may moderate or affect the impact of stress?
Moderators variables that cause the relationships between stressors, perceived stress and outcomes to be weaker for some and stronger for others
Awareness of moderators helps identify those more likely to experience stress and negative outcomes
Suggest possible solutions for reducing negative outcomes
Discussion question
What kinds of things may moderate or affect the impact of stress?
There are several strategies that have been shown to decrease the impact of stress like:
Eating well
Exercising
Not over committing yourself
Planning ahead so that you are not left at the end of the semester with several papers and assignments to do that you could have taken care of earlier.

15. Social Support
Social Support amount of helpfulness derived from social relationships
Hardiness personality characteristic that neutralizes stress
Social Support amount of helpfulness derived from social relationships
Esteem support – showing that a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies
Informational support – providing help in defining, understanding, and coping with problems
Social companionship – Spending time with others in leisure and recreational activities
Instrumental support – Providing financial aid, material resources, or needed services
Hardiness personality characteristic that neutralizes stress
Embraces personality dimensions
Commitment – having a sense of purpose, not giving up under pressure
Internal Locus of Control - feel that they influence the events that affect their lives – they develop proactive coping strategies.
Challenge- change is perceived as an opportunity for growth and development, not a threat

16. Type A Behavior Pattern
Type A Behavior Pattern aggressively involved in a chronic, determined struggle to accomplish more in less time

17. Stress-Reduction Techniques
Table 18-3
Stress-Reduction Techniques
Technique
Description
Uses slow deep breathing and systematic muscle tension reduction.
Muscle Relaxation
A machine is used to train people to detect muscular tension; muscle relaxation is then used to alleviate this symptom of stress
Biofeedback
The relaxation response is activated by redirecting one’s thoughts away from oneself; a four-step procedure is used to attain passive stress-free state of mind
Meditation
Irrational or maladaptive thoughts are identified and replaced with those that are rational or logical.
Cognitive Restructuring
What are the pros and cons of each approach?
Muscle relaxation – this approach is inexpensive and easy to use but may require a trained professional to implement
Biofeedback – expensive due to costs of equipment; however, equipment can be used to evaluate effectiveness of other stress-reduction programs
Meditation – Least expensive, simple to implement, and can be practiced almost anywhere.
Cognitive restructuring – expensive because it requires a trained psychologist or counselor
Holistic wellness – involves inexpensive but often behaviorally difficult lifestyle changes.
An interdisciplinary approach that goes beyond stress reduction by advocating that people strive for personal wellness in all aspects of their lives
Holistic wellness