1. MODALS

2. What do you call a “Modal”?
Special verbs which behave irregularly in English.
Give additional information about the function of the main verb.
Posses a great variety of communicative functions.

3. What types of modals are there?
Modal verbs (modal aux verbs)
Semi-modal verbs (marginal modals)
Other modal expressions.

4. MODAL VERBS

5. Possibility
We use the modals could, might and may to show that something is possible in the future, but not certain:
They might come later. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come later.) They may come by car. (= Perhaps/Maybe they will come by car.) If we don’t hurry we could be late. (= Perhaps/Maybe we will be late)
We use could have, might have and may have to show that something was possible now or at some time in the past:
It’s ten o’clock. They might have arrived now. They could have arrived hours ago.
We use the modal can to make general statements about what is possible:
It can be very cold in winter. (= It is sometimes very cold in winter) You can easily lose your way in the dark. (= People often lose their way in the dark)
We use the modal could as the past tense of can:
It could be very cold in winter. (= Sometimes it was very cold in winter.) You could lose your way in the dark. (= People often lost their way in the dark)

6. Impossibility:
We use the negative can’t or cannot to show that something is impossible:
That can’t be true. You cannot be serious.
We use couldn’t/could not to talk about the past:
We knew it could not be true. He was obviously joking. He could not be serious.

7. Probability:
We use the modal must to show we are sure something to be true and we have reasons for our belief:
It’s getting dark. It must be quite late. You haven’t eaten all day. You must be hungry.
We use must have for the past:
They hadn’t eaten all day. They must have been hungry. You look happy. You must have heard the good news.
We use the modal should to suggest that something is true or will be true in the future, and to show you have reasons for your suggestion:
Ask Miranda. She should know. It's nearly six o'clock. They should arrive soon.
We use should have to talk about the past:
It's nearly eleven o'clock. They should have arrived by now.

8. Ability:
We use can to talk about someone’s skill or general abilities:
She can speak several languages. He can swim like a fish. They can’t dance very well.
We use can to talk about the ability to do something at a given time in the present or future:
You can make a lot of money if you are lucky. Help. I can’t breathe. They can run but they can’t hide.
We use could to talk about past time:
She could speak several languages. They couldn’t dance very well.
We use could have to say that someone had the ability/opportunity to do something, but did not do it:
She could have learned Swahili, but she didn’t have time. I could have danced all night [but didn't].

9. Permission: We use can to ask for permission to do something:
Can I ask a question, please? Can we go home now?
could is more formal and polite than can:
Could I ask a question please? Could we go home now?
may is another more formal and polite way of asking for permission:
May I ask a question please? May we go home now?
We use can to give permission:
You can go home now if you like. You can borrow my pen if you like.
may is a more formal and polite way of giving permission:
You may go home now, if you like.
We use can to say that someone has permission to do something:
We can go out whenever we want. Students can travel free.
may is a more formal and polite way of saying that someone has permission:
Students may travel free.

10. Instructions and requests:
We use could you and would you as polite ways of telling or asking someone to do something:
Could you take a message please? Would you carry this for me please? Could I have my bill please?
can and will are less polite:
Can you take a message please? Will you carry this for me please?

11. Suggestions and advice:
We use should to make suggestions and give advice:
You should send an . We should go by train.
We use could to make suggestions:
We could meet at the weekend. You could eat out tonight.
We use conditionals to give advice:
Dan will help you if you ask him.
Past tenses are more polite:
Dan would help you if you asked him.

12. Offers and invitations:
We use can I… and to make offers:
I can do that for you if you like. I can give you a lift to the station. I’ll do that for you if you like. I’ll give you a lift to the station.
Can I help you? Can I do that for you?
We use would you like (to) ... for invitations:
We can also use shall I …
Would you like to come round to morrow? Would you like another drink?
Shall I help you with that? Shall I call you on your mobile?
We use you must or we must for a very polite invitation:
We sometime say I can ... or I could ... or I’ll (I will) ... to make an offer:
You must come round and see us. We must meet again soon.

13. Obligation and necessity:
We use must to say that it is necessary to do something:
You must stop at a red light. Everyone must bring something to eat. You can wear what you like, but you must look neat and tidy. I’m sorry, but you mustn’t make a noise in here.
We use had to for this if we are talking about the past:
Everyone had to bring something to eat. We could wear what we liked, but we had to look neat and tidy.

14. Modals + have We use a modal verb with have and the past participle:
We use a modal verb with have to refer back:
… from a point of time in the past:
We were very worried. Someone might have taken the car.
… from the present
It is nearly eight o’clock. They will have arrived by now.
…or from the future:
We won’t eat until they arrive. They might not have had supper.
…or to refer to past time:
You should have helped her when she asked. They might have got lost. Nobody knows where they are.
Subject
Modal
Have
Past Participle
They
will
have
arrived
by now
You
might
seen
the film
Jack and Jill
would
been
late

15. Characteristics Immutable.
Always followed by an infinitive without “to” (i.e bare infinitive).
Express certainty, possibility, obligation, willingness, ability, necessity, advice, prohibition and permission.

16. 4. The modals must and can need substitute verbs to express obligation or ability in the different tenses. 5. Modals are auxiliary verbs. They don’t need an additional auxiliary in negatives or questions.
Past simple
I couldn't/wasn't able to walk until I was 3 years old.
Present perfect
I haven't been able to solve this problem. Can you help?
Future
I'm not sure if I will be able to come to your party.
Infinitive
I would love to be able to play the piano.
For example: 
Must I come? (Do I must come?),
He shouldn't smoke (He doesn't should smoke).

17. Semi-modal verbs (marginal modals)

18. Need, dare, and used to are considered "semi-modal verbs" because they function in much the same way as modal verbs - they are an auxiliary verb that adds information to the main verb, but can't really function alone.
They are different from modal verbs, though, because they behave more like typical verbs - for example, they change to agree with their subjects, they change tense, and they can be combined with other helping verbs like be, have, and do.

20. "Ought to" -- both a modal verb and a semi-modal verb
"Ought to" is a bit of a special case. It has a lot of tendencies of modal verbs - it doesn't ever change forms or use another helping verb.
But, it looks more like a regular verb because you have to include "to" before the main verb.
It just goes to show you, there are always exceptions to the rules.
For example:
She ought to spend more time practicing piano.
You can see elements here of both modal and semi-modal verbs. Like a modal verb, you don't add an -s to ought, even though she is in the third person singular. Like a semi-modal verb, you follow ought with to.
We ought to go to the beach next week.
Again, you can see elements here of both modal and semi-modal verbs. Like a modal verb, you don't add will before ought, even though we are discussing the future. Like a semi-modal verb, you follow ought with to.

21. Modality: other modal words and expressions

22. Other modal words
Apart from modal verbs, there are a lot of words which also express modality. They are words which express degrees of certainty or obligation. Expressing degrees of certainty Adjectives: possible, probable, certain, sure, likely, unlikely, definite, clear, obvious Adverbs: possibly, probably, certainly, surely, definitely, clearly, obviously Expressing degrees of obligation Adjectives: necessary, compulsory, obligatory, essential Adverbs: necessarily, perhaps, maybe [on the phone] Is it possible to ring us back when my husband is home? (or Can/could you (possibly) ring us back when my husband is home?) I’m thinking of possibly buying a house now. (I might buy a house.) [talking about a computer] A: It’s a good machine. B: Yeah. It certainly is. (I agree completely.)

23. Necessarily is often used with not.
I met Gary in Wales when I was at university there and we ideally wanted to stay in Wales. Not necessarily in South Wales. (not obligatory – it can be South Wales or in another part of Wales)

24. Other modal expressions
These expressions are also very common in informal speaking: for certain, for sure, for definite:
It’s nice to get something for free, that’s for sure.
A: When’s the wedding going to be? April?
B: April the seventeenth for definite.
We often use for certain for sure/for definite with know:
We think Graham is coming. We don’t know for certain. (or for sure/for definite)
Certainly and surely
A: When I go to town now in Cardiff, I don’t know anybody.
B: But, Richard, surely you’ve still got lots of friends here.
(The speaker is asking for agreement with something that seems likely.)
Spoken English:
Warning:
Certainly and surely do not have the same meaning. We use certainly when we have no doubt about something. We use surely when we want agreement:
The car is certainly more comfortable than the bike. (I have no doubt about it.)
The car is surely more comfortable than the bike. (I’m not certain but this seems likely.)

25. Modality: expressions with be
Some expressions with be have modal meanings:

26. Be expressions (be able to, be due to)
Be about to
Be about to is used to talk about things which are going to happen very soon:
I’m about to eat. Can I phone you back?
It is often used with just:
We’re just about to set off for a walk. Do you want to come?
When used in the past, be about to can refer to things that were going to happen but didn’t:
I was about to complain but he came over and apologised.
We don’t use be about to with time expressions:
I was about to call you.
Not: I was about to call you in ten minutes.

27. Be able to
Be able to is like can. We use it to talk about abilities. We often use it in places where it is not possible to use can. For example, it isn’t possible to use can after another modal verb: She won’t be able to concentrate. Not: She won’t can concentrate. He should be able to work in a team. Not: He should can work in a team. Be able to is a more formal alternative to can: I am very sorry but I am not able to give you that information. (or, less formal: I cannot give you that information.) Past achievement: could or was/were able to? We usually use was/were able to, not could to talk about past achievements in affirmative clauses. This is because they are facts, rather than possibilities: Only one person was able to beat the record. Not: Only one person could beat the record. We use couldn’t or, more formally, wasn’t/weren’t able to in negative clauses: We weren’t able to finish the marathon in under four hours. (or We couldn’t finish the marathon …)

28. Be due to
Be due to is used to talk about things that are expected or planned to happen at a certain time. We often use it with a time expression: Are you due to hand in homework today? The train is due to arrive at Glasgow Central at 12:12.

29. Be likely to
Be likely to is used to talk about how probable things are: Are parents who have a lot of money likely to spoil their children? It is often used to make comparisons with words like more and less: I think men are more likely to spend a lot of money on food than women are. A: I liked Budapest as well. B: Yeah. I’m probably less likely to go back there than to Prague. We also use it’s likely followed by that + clause: It’s likely that sales will rise. We form the negative of be likely to and be likely that either with not or with unlikely. Unlikely is more formal: The company is not likely to make a profit in the second half of the year. People are unlikely to listen to him now because they know he lied.

30. Be meant to
Be meant to is used to talk about what is desirable, expected or intended: A: It looks green to me. B: Oh, is it meant to be a different colour? It was meant to be like a quiz and we were all in different teams and there was meant to be a fantastic prize.

31. Be supposed to
Be supposed to is used to talk about obligations and arrangements: Where were you? You were supposed to be at the party! You’re supposed to have an hour for lunch. That’s the law. It’s also used to talk about people’s expectations or beliefs about something: [talking about some medicine] A: Take some of this. B: What’s it supposed to do? (What does it do to you?) And then I’m gonna get a train over to Brussels which takes all day as well. It’s supposed to be a nice route with forests and mountains and things (gonna represents ‘going to’, as it is pronounced in informal speaking.)

32. Be to
Be to + base form of the verb has a number of meanings. It is rather formal. Obligations Be to refers to what someone is obliged or required to do. We also use it to refer to formal decisions: [referring to an obligation] If I am not to tell anyone, then that’s simply not fair. [making decisions at a business meeting] So, George is to contact the Stockholm office, and Patricia is to speak to the Elsico representative. Agreed? Commands and instructions We can also use be to when we give someone commands or instructions: You are to report to the head office by 8.30 am. She’s not to be late. OK? Headlines Be to is common in newspaper headlines to refer to events which have been fixed or decided. We don’t always use the verb: Prime Minister to announce emergency plan on climate change. (a headline – used without a verb) (Full form: The Prime Minister is to announce an emergency plan on climate change.)

33. EXCERCISE
They claimed to be abducted by aliens. They ______ be serious.
My family _____ arrived at the airport hours ago.
Ask Annie’s brother, he is a doctor. He ____ know.
__ we go after this, mum?
She asked me why we ____ wear hats. I told her it was really hot that day.
I’m not certain whether I _____ to make it for the sleepover mate, sorry.
We’ve ran out of gas! We ___ to refill the gas soon.
He’s not going to get sleepy, he’s ___ to staying up all night!
I’m going to crash now, can you ____ wake me up in an hour?
Initially we wanted to stay in Australia before we got back here. Not ______ in Western Australia.
We’re _____ head out, want us to bring something home?
Students who cheat are _____ to become sluggards than those who are honest.