1. Meta-heuristics Introduction - Fabien Tricoire
Simulated Annealing - Fabien Tricoire
Tabu Search- Fabien Tricoire
Genetic Algorithms- Fabien Tricoire
Memetic Algorithms- Fabien Tricoire
Ant Colony Optimization- Fabien Tricoire
Particle Swarm Optimization - Varadarajan Komandur
Scatter Search – Manuel Laguna

2. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
PSO is a robust stochastic optimization technique based on the movement and intelligence of swarms.
PSO applies the concept of social interaction to problem solving.
It was developed in 1995 by James Kennedy (social-psychologist) and Russell Eberhart (electrical engineer).
It uses a number of agents (particles) that constitute a swarm moving around in the search space looking for the best solution.
Each particle is treated as a point in a N-dimensional space which adjusts its “flying” according to its own flying experience as well as the flying experience of other particles.

3. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
Each particle keeps track of its coordinates in the solution space which are associated with the best solution (fitness) that has achieved so far by that particle. This value is called personal best , pbest.
Another best value that is tracked by the PSO is the best value obtained so far by any particle in the neighborhood of that particle. This value is called gbest.
The basic concept of PSO lies in accelerating each particle toward its pbest and the gbest locations, with a random weighted accelaration at each time step as shown in Fig.1

4. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)y x
Fig.1 Concept of modification of a searching point by PSO
sk : current searching point sk+1: modified searching point vk: current velocity vk+1: modified velocity vpbest : velocity based on pbest vgbest : velocity based on gbest

5. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
Each particle tries to modify its position using the following
information:
the current positions,
the current velocities,
the distance between the current position and pbest,
the distance between the current position and the gbest.
The modification of the particle’s position can be mathematically
modeled according the following equation :
Vik+1 = wVik +c1 rand1(…) x (pbesti-sik) + c2 rand2(…) x (gbest-sik) ….. (1)
where, vik : velocity of agent i at iteration k, w: weighting function, cj : weighting factor, rand : uniformly distributed random number between 0 and 1, sik : current position of agent i at iteration k, pbesti : pbest of agent i, gbest: gbest of the group.

6. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
The following weighting function is usually utilized in (1)
w = wMax-[(wMax-wMin) x iter]/maxIter (2)
where wMax= initial weight,
wMin = final weight,
maxIter = maximum iteration number,
iter = current iteration number.
sik+1 = sik + Vik (3)

7. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
Comments on the Inertial weight factor:
A large inertia weight (w) facilitates a global search while a small inertia weight facilitates a local search.
By linearly decreasing the inertia weight from a relatively large value to a small value through the course of the PSO run gives the best PSO performance compared with fixed inertia weight settings.
Larger w greater global search ability
Smaller w greater local search ability.

8. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
Flow chart depicting the General PSO Algorithm:
Start
Initialize particles with random position
and velocity vectors.
For each particle’s position (p)
evaluate fitness
Loop until all particles exhaust
If fitness(p) better than
fitness(pbest) then pbest= p
Loop until max iter
Set best of pBests as gBest
Update particles velocity (eq. 1) and
position (eq. 3)
Stop: giving gBest, optimal solution.

9. Comparison with other evolutionary computation techniques.
Unlike in genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming and evolutionary strategies, in PSO, there is no selection operation.
All particles in PSO are kept as members of the population through the course of the run
PSO is the only algorithm that does not implement the survival of the fittest.
No crossover operation in PSO.
eq 1(b) resembles mutation in EP.
In EP balance between the global and local search can be adjusted through the strategy parameter while in PSO the balance is achieved through the inertial weight factor (w) of eq. 1(a)

10. Variants of PSO
Discrete PSO ……………… can handle discrete binary variables
MINLP PSO………… can handle both discrete binary and continuous variables.
Hybrid PSO…………. Utilizes basic mechanism of PSO and the natural selection mechanism, which is usually utilized by EC methods such as GAs.
Cyber Swarm – Applying Scatter Search and Path Relinking - Glover

11. Scatter Search and Path Relinking: Methodology and Applications
Manuel Laguna

12. Metaheuristic
A metaheuristic refers to a master strategy that guides and modifies other heuristics to produce solutions beyond those that are normally generated in a quest for local optimality.
A metaheuristic is a procedure that has the ability to escape local optimality

13. Typical Search Trajectory

14. Metaheuristic Classification
x/y/z Classification
x = A (adaptive memory) or M (memoryless)
y = N (systematic neighborhood search) or S (random sampling)
Z = 1 (one current solution) or P (population of solutions)
Some Classifications
Tabu search (A/N/1)
Genetic Algorithms (M/S/P)
Scatter Search (M/N/P)

15. Scatter Search OverviewP
Diversification Generation
Method
Repeat until |P| = PSize
Improvement
Method
Improvement
Method
Reference Set
Update Method
RefSet
Stop if MaxIter
reached
Solution Combination
Method
Improvement
Method
Subset Generation
Method
No more new solutions
Diversification Generation
Method

16. GA vs. SS GA SS Population Large (~ 100) Small (~10) Reproduction
Probabilistic selection of parents
Deterministic selection of reference solutions
Combination
Crossover and mutation
Structured combinations
Evolution
Survival of the fittest
Strategic updating to preserve quality and diversity
Local Search
Recently added as a mutation mechanism
Integral part of the procedure