1. Learning Styles An Overview of theories, models and measures Manuel Papagolos March 13’2006
Introduction
Research in the area of learning style is being conducted in domains outside psychology – the discipline from which many of the central concepts and theories originate.This includes medical and health care training, management, industry, vocational training and a vast range of settings and levels in the field of education.

2. There are a number of learning-related concepts which have been the focus of attention when attempting to identify factors affecting learning-related performance:
Perception of academic control
Achievement Motivation
Learning Style

3. Learning Style
There is general acceptance that the manner in which individuals choose to approach a learning situation has an impact of performance and achievement

4. Key Terminology
Cognitive Style – an individual’s typical or habitual mode of problem solving, thinking, perceiving and remembering
Learning Style – a concern with the application of cognitive style in a learning situation – can change over time or can be stable
Preferences – favoring one method of teaching over another, as learning preferences

5. Curry’s Onion Model
Curry used this model to propose a “layer-like” model of learning behavior – using an onion metaphor to illustrate the inner and outer layers.

6. Curry’s “layers”
Instructional Preference – an individual’s preferred choice of learning environment
Social Interaction – relates to an individual’s preference for social interaction during learning
Information processing – an individual’s intellectual approach to the processing of information
Cognitive personality style – a relatively permanent personality dimension – when an individual’s behavior is observed across many different learning situations

7. Riding and Cheema’s Fundamental Dimensions
Having identified in excess of 30 labels used to describe a variety of cognitive and learning styles, Riding and Cheema propose a broad categorization of style according to two fundamental dimensions representing the way in which information is processed and represented: who list-analytic and verbalizer-imager

8. Riding and Cheema
Who list-analytic dimension – represents the manner in which individuals tend to process information either as a whole, or broken down in parts
Verbalizer-imager – describes the degree to which individuals tend to represent information as words or images

9. Riding and Cheema
Conclusion – while there is relatively little research comparing the various styles, they can at least be placed into the two broad categories of who list-analytic and verbal-imagery, in order to simplify. The two styles exist independently and are not contingent upon one another

10. Cognitive-Centered, Activity-Centered and Personality-Centered Approaches
Cognitive-centered approach – focus us on the identification of styles based on individual difference in cognitive and perceptual functioning
Learning-centered approach – distinguished on the basis that there is a greater interest in the impact of style on learning in an educational setting
Personality –centered – only a limited amount of info – only a single model incorporates as a major factor

11. Theories Models and Measures
I have included a sampling of models and a discussion of their models, measurement and comments. These are not all-inclusive as there have been many, many studies involving these theories.

12. Theories, Models and Measures Witkin’s Field-Dependence/Field Independence
Model – Field dependence is an individual’s ability to dissembled in perceptual tasks – associated with learning in isolation as opposed to integration.
Field independent learners rely more on an external frame of reference, very motivated, respond better to clearly defined performance goals, need structure and guidance, and interaction

13. Witkin’s Field-Dependence Field Independence
Measurement – Embedded Figures Test (EFT) have been used to measure the construct
Comments – This theory has been criticized based on the following grounds: to generalize performance on perceptual tasks to personality ad social behavior is an over-extension of the theory

14. Kagan’s Impulsivity-Reflexivity Who list-Analytic Style Family/Cognitive-Centered Approach/Cognitive Personality Style
Model and measurement – using the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT) which requires familiar line drawing of objects to be matched against several possibilities. A quick response would indicate “cognitive impulsive” while those who scrutinize would be labeled “cognitive reflective”
Comments – Good – significant correlations between MFFT and EFT scores

15. Convergent-Divergent Styles (Wholist-Analytic Style Family/Cognitive-Centered Approach/Cognitive Personality Style
Model – Convergent style is characterized by the generation of the one accepted correct answer from the available information and divergent style as a propensity to produce a number of potentially acceptable solutions to the problem

16. Convergent-Divergent Styles (Who list-Analytic Style Family/Cognitive-Centered Approach/Cognitive Personality Style) (cont’d)
Measurement – Convergent uses standard intelligence tests, multiple-choice items, as well as the EFT and MFFT. Divergent uses tests such as Uses of Objects Test and the Consequences Test as potentially correct answers is used as an index
Comments – needs to be a like-for-like match between teacher and student in preferred style

17. Holzman and Klein’s Leveller-Sharpener Styles (Who list-Analytic Style Family/Cognitive-Centered Approach/Cognitive Personality Style)
Model – The leveler has the tendency to oversimplify their perceptions of the task and reducing complexity. The sharpener fails to assimilate effectively, but introduces complexity, treating each detail or event as a novel.
Measurement – Schematizing test – required individuals to judge the size of squares of light which get progressively bigger.
Comments – has shown some similarities to field-dependence/independence

18. Learning Styles in Action
Manuel Papagolos
March 13,2006
Learning Styles in Action
Academic Achievement – positively correlated with a strategic approach, negatively correlated with an apathetic approach and unrelated to a deep approach to learning.
Clinical training in medical schools – students learning styles, NOT their final exam results, were related to the amount of knowledge gained
Career Development – learning styles key factor in “high flyer” development
Police Training – done with little regard for individual difference in learning

19. Working with Learning Style
Curry – highlights the failure to identify and agree upon style characteristics most relevant to learners and instructional settings as a major concern
You need to assess the objective of a learning situation and match the appropriate model of learning style to it in order to be effective
Ref: Educational Psychology, Vol. 24, No. 4, August Learning Styles:
An overview of theories, models, and measures. Simon Cassidy.