1. OCEAN SCIENCES
HISTORY OF

2. “Just the Facts…” Over 97% of the water on the Earth is in the ocean.
The average depth of the ocean is about 4000 meters.
The Marianas Trench is 11,022 m deep, the deepest spot on the planet.
Average pressure =8 tons per sq. in.
Mt. Everest is “only” ~8667 m above sea level

3. “Just the Facts…”
Mauna Kea on the Big Island of Hawaii, measures ~10,600 m from the ocean floor, making it the tallest mountain on the planet (surpassing even Mt. Everest).
The ocean contains some 5 trillion tons of salts
If dried and spread evenly, that mass would cover the entire planet to a depth of 45 m.

4. The Science or Study of the Oceans in 4 main areas:
Oceanography
The Science or Study of the Oceans in 4 main areas:
Geological Oceanography
Physical Oceanography
Chemical Oceanography
Biological Oceanography

5. Geological Oceanography
Study of earth at edge of ocean
Formation processes (seafloor)
Sediments
Rocks & minerals
Geothermal vents

6. Physical Oceanography
How & why oceans move
Weather
Heat transfer
Water cycles
Waves, tides, currents
Temperature

7. Chemical Oceanography
Composition & history of seawater
Seawater processes & interactions
Salinity
Dissolved gases
Nutrients

8. Biological Oceanography
Living organisms
Organisms relationships with each other and their environment

9. History of Oceanography

10. Why study historic oceanography?
Connected to the world’s overall history
Commerce, warfare, resources, weather
The oceans have shaped humanity’s past

11. Why study Oceanographic History?
Understand how and why people apply marine sciences today
Oceanography’s history is about people, not just oceans and test tubes.

12. Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. to 800 A.D.)
Not sure when ocean voyages actually began
Fish hooks and spears dated approximately 5000 B.C.
Earliest recorded sea voyage – Egyptians about 3200 B.C.

13. Phoenician Explorations
Most important early Western seafarers
Motivated by trade, Phoenicians traveled incredible distances
Established first trade routes throughout the Mediterranean and as far north as Great Britain

14. Phoenician Navigation
Stayed within sight of land
Traveled at night – steered by observing constellations and the North Star.
In the ancient world, the North Star was called the Phoenician Star

15. The Polynesians: Explorers of the Pacific Ocean
Polynesian Double-Hulled Canoe

16. Polynesian Exploration
Between 2000 and 500 B.C.
Often traveled thousands of kilometers across open ocean
Open canoes cut from tree trunks
Developed stick maps with ocean currents
Settled most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean hundreds of years before Europeans reached Pacific Ocean

18. Polynesian Stick Map

19. Polynesian Significance
Earliest known regular, long-distance, open-ocean seafaring beyond sight of land

20. Migration routes of the Polynesians

21. Greek Exploration
First who used mathematical principles and developed sophisticated maps for seafaring
Pytheas – Greek explorer, noted that he could predict tides in Atlantic based on phases of moon
He also measured angle between horizon and the North Star to determine position – improved navigation

22. Eratosthenes ( B.C)
2 major contributions that furthered Pytheas’ work
Calculated Earth’s Circumference ~40,000 km
Invented first latitude/longitude system

23. Every point on the Earth can be specified by use of two numbers – Latitude and Longitude. Latitude is the North-South range, with values from 90N to 90S of equator

24. Map of World – According to Eratosthenes

25. Ptolemy ( A.D.)
Created map of Earth that showed a portion of the Earth as a sphere on flat paper.
Produced first world atlas
Improved longitude / latitude system
System still used today

26. Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)

27. AD- Vikings

28. Vikings Age of Exploration 800-1066 AD
Leif Erickson
Discovered North America 500 years before Columbus

29. Viking Long Boat

30. Fig. 1.5

31. Age of Exploration

32. Chinese Exploration
The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent large convoys of ships out on missions in which seven voyages were made
There ships were more technologically advanced than anything in Europe, consisting of five masts and magnetic compasses and navigational charts
The Ming Dynasty reached as far as Africa

33. Chinese Exploration of the Ming Dynasty
In 1405, Chinese sent 62 ships to explore the Indian and Pacific Oceans

34. European Exploration and the Renaissance
Prince Henry the navigator, (1420’s) founded first school of navigation
Christopher Columbus (1490’s) was attempting to find a west-ward route to India when he reached the Bahamas
Ferdinand Magellan (1519) led the expedition that first circumnavigated the word; he was killed in the Philippines. His servent, Sebastian Del Cano, brought the last ship, Victoria, into port in 1522.

35. Magellan’s Circumnavigation of World

36. The Beginning of Ocean Science

37. 18th Century
Previous exploration driven by military, trade, or conquest objectives
Royal Navy of Britain launched voyages with objectives of exploration, mapping and projecting British presence around the world

38. Cook’s Expedition (1768 – 1779)
Made 1st accurate maps of many regions in the ocean w/ new invention
Chronometer invented by John Harrison
Chronometer is a clock capable of keeping accurate time aboard ship at sea

39. Ben Franklin and the Gulf Stream – 1st postmaster General of U.S.
Noted northerly routed ship from Europe took longer than ships that came by a longer more southerly route
Learned about gulf stream from nephew, Timothy Folger, who gave his uncle a chart
Franklin had the chart printed and distributed to the captains of mail ships.
They shortened their inbound voyages by avoiding the current and they shortened their outbound voyages by using the current.

40. Ben Franklin’s Gulf Stream Map 1513

41. Franklin’s map and satellite photo of Gulf Stream
“You may delay but time will not.”
Benjamin Franklin

42. 1860 Gulf Stream Map
1860 gulf stream map

43. What’s at the bottom of the Sea?

44. Ocean Science Begins Botanists and naturalists
Collect, describe, and classify organisms
Theory of atoll formation (Charles Darwin)
Investigations of microscopic drifting plants and animals (plankton)
Scientific interest based on practical reasons
Navigation, tide prediction, and safety
Importance of government support
Laying of transatlantic telegraph cables

45. H.M.S. Beagle

46. Voyage of the Beagle,

50. Darwin, Coral Reefs and Biological Evolution
From 1831 to 1836 a naturalist for the HMS Beagle circumnavigated the southern oceans and oceanic islands.
Darwin observed birds and other organisms on isolated islands, most of his research took place in the Galapagos Islands.
In 1859, his observations were published in the book “On the origin of Species”.

51. 1847 Maury First “true” oceanographer
1847: U.S. Navy Lieutenant Matthew F. Maury
produced first bathymetric, wind and current chart
of the North Atlantic.

52. Father of Oceanography… Matthew Maury
Matthew Maury, in charge of the Depot of Naval charts and instruments.
Organized first international meteorological conference to establish uniform methods
Published a summarized version of data in first Oceanographic textbook in 1855

53. The Rosses, Edward Forbes, and life in the deep sea
John Ross took samples and animals in Baffin bay (Canada) Later James Ross took samples from Antarctic ocean bottom at 4.3 Miles
John Ross and James Ross found that there are some bottom dwelling creatures in Baffin Bay and Antarctic Ocean. They discovered that deep Atlantic is uniformly cold.
Forbes – Oceans divided into life-depth zones; concluded that ocean life decrease as depth increases. This contrasted with Rosses finings and created dispute for decades in Britain.

54. The Ocean as Laboratory : The Challenger Expedition (1872-1876)
The expedition covered 79,178 miles.
Directed by C. Wyville Thompson
2 contributions:
Discovery and classification of 4,717 new marine species
Measurement of record water depth at the Mariana Trench of 26,847 feet.

55. The Challenger Expedition
Comprehensive scientific expedition
Naval corvette refitted with laboratories, winches, and sounding scope
Circumnavigation
361 sounding stations
Collected deep-sea water samples
Investigated deep-water motion
Temperature measurements at all depths
Thousands of biological and sea-bottom samples

56. Fig. 1.15 Analysis and compilation of data continued for 20 years
Challenger Expedition
Analysis and compilation of data continued for 20 years
Began oceanography as a modern science
Prestige stimulated expeditions by other nations

57. Polar oceanography begins with the voyage of the Fram
Fridtjof Nansen set out with a crew of 13 on a boat called Fram to explore the Artic sea.
His boat became frozen in ice and drifted for 3 years
His drift proved that there was no continent in the Arctic sea.

58. Early Oceanographers
Harsh conditions and slow work compared to today

59. Twentieth century oceanography

60. Oceanography in the Twentieth Century
Support by wealthy individuals
Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Rapid advances during World War II
Office of Naval Research (ONR) and National Science Foundation (NSF) funding
International Geophysical Year (IGY) cooperation
Satellites
Deep Sea Drilling Program
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

61. Bathyscaphe Trieste

63. Trieste (1960) The bathyscaphe, Trieste, descends to 10,915 meters
Into Marianas Trench
Deepest depth in the ocean

64. Marianas Trench
Near Guam, lies the deepest known point on earth’s floor—the Challenger Deep inside the Mariana Trench. The Mariana Trench is located in the Pacific Ocean; it is the result of the convergence of the large Pacific Tectonic Plate and the smaller Mariana Tectonic Plate. This trench is 1,554 miles long and 44 miles wide. The deepest point, Challenger Deep, is measured at depths of nearly 7 miles, 38, 518 feet deep. Because of the extreme profundity and darkness of the trench, the measured depth is still only an estimate measured from mathematical conversion from the waters’ pressure.

65. Marianas Trench…
To date, only 3 people in existence have reached the bottom of the Mariana Trench. The first two humans to achieve decent were Jacques Piccard (7/28/1922 – 11/1/2008) and Captain Don Walsh (11/7/1931 – present) aboard the US Navy owned bathyscaphe Trieste. The expedition was completed on January 23rd, The vessel carrying Walsh and Piccard remained on the deepest known point on earth for 20 minutes. Recently, in 2012, James Cameron was the third to reach the bottom, under the supervision of Captain Don Walsh himself.

66. Voyage of the Meteor First drilling ship Ship came from Germany
Set the standard for multidisciplinary studies of the Ocean
Mapped the ocean bottom by echo sounding
Meteor sailed for 25 months

67. Glomar Challenger Deep Sea Drilling Project Ship (1968 to 1983)
Howard Hughes’ ship

68. Large-scale and international oceanographic research
The Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) was the 1st large-scale cooperative effort in academic ocean research
The Glomar Challenger began 1st leg of deep sea drilling
The deep sea drilling project became the ocean drilling program (ODP)
The ODP drill ship JOIDES Resolution, which is a lot larger than the Glomar Challenger, conducted its first scientific cruise and the JOIDES program continues today.

69. JOIDES Resolution (1985 to present) Ocean Drilling Program drill ship

70. The history behind plate tectonic theory
In 1915, Alfred Wegener developed the theory of continental drift.
He conceived of a single ancient landmass called Pangaea that began to break 180 million years ago.
Fredrick Vine and Drummond Matthews provided evidence for sea floor spreading in 1963
They mapped magnetic patterns of the ocean floor, which showed parallel bands of similarly magnetized reaches on either side of oceanic mountain ranges. Which were records of changes in Earth’s magnetic field over time

71. Humans invade the deep ocean
Increased pressure on body cavities and gases dissolved in body tissues limits duration of dives.
Decompressing is necessary at greater depths because rapid ascending turns dissolved gases in tissues into nitrogen. These nitrogen bubbles can stop blood flow. This is know as the bends and is extremely painful illness which can be fatal.
To protect oneself, a strict decompression schedule which includes stopping at different depths
Jim suit allows a person to repair machinery at the ocean floor at surface pressure

72. Submersibles
William Beebe- descended to a depth of 923 meters off Bermuda in a tethered bathysphere to observe deep-sea life.
Jacques Piccard- designed untethered vessel Trieste
Alvin, Sea Cliff- 2 most widely used submersibles
Japan’s Shinkai- to study microbes in the deep sea

73. Submersibles Factors of manned sub: Risk to human life
High cost of the systems required
Relatively short time that can be spent making observations
Advantages of ROVs (remotely operated vehicles)
No risk to humans
Can make computer-assisted maps (based on sonar)
Stay down in water for a long time
Autonomous Underwater Vehicles
Programmed to carry out specific data gatherings missions of long durations without human life

74. A.U.V.s vs. R.O.V.s

75. REMUS AUV mapped Titanic on 2012 Expedition.

76. Living under the sea
Jacques Cousteau- began designing and testing the underwater living chamber in the 1950s
In the 1970s teams lived undersea chambers for up to 60 days
May be placed on ocean floor or suspended
Can respond and equalize to any pressure

77. Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) invented SCUBA during World War II

78. Jacques Cousteau (1910-1997) Most famous oceanographer of the 20th century
The sea, once it casts its spell, it holds one in its nets of wonder forever.
The sea, the great unifier, is man's only hope. Now, as never before, the old phrase has a literal meaning: we are all in the same boat
~ Jacques Cousteau

79. Oceanography gets institutionalized
Scripps institution of Oceanography (1st institute in U.S.) – California
Woods Hole Ocean. Inst. (Boston)
Lamont Geological Observatory - New York
Texas A&M University administered The Ocean Drilling Program
NOAA – National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association

80. Universities for Ocean Science
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Rutgers University
University of Washington, Seattle
Princeton University
University of Southern California
University of California, Santa Barbara
University of Miami
University of Hawaii

81. SCRIPPS

82. SCRIPPS Founded in 1903 in San Diego, CA
Became part of the University of California in 1912
Scripps scientists were the first to discover rising levels of carbon dioxide

83. Home to FLIP – Floating Instrument Platform

84. 355 ft long floating platform
Owned by the Navy
Built from the idea of a Louisville slugger
Design makes it stable in water
10 meter waves = less than 1m vertical movement
Began operations in Sept. 1962

85. Woods Hole

86. WHOI – Home To ALVIN http://www.whoi.edu/home/interactive/alvin/
ALVIN – Brought back first pictures from Titanic
Argo – towed Camera – 1985 helped to find Titanic wreckage
Alvin’s New Upgrade – 6500 M

87. NEW ALVIN
After $41Million Re-design

88. Lamont – Doherty Earth Observatory

89. Current Research Mapping the rift valley off the coast of Spain
What lies under the Arctic Ice?

90. The expansion of oceanography
German U-boat led to the invention of the echo sounder to detect submarines
WW2_military performed and supported many studies on transmission of sound in the ocean waves, currents, and ocean- floor topography.
After WW2 U.S. government established a Sea Grant program to fund ocean research

91. Aquarius

92. AQUARIUS http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZIMIUuzsBc&feature=related
Jonathan’s Blue World

93. Remote sensing
Sometimes ocean is observed from space; they can measure temp., ice cover, color, etc.
Seasat A - 1st dedicated oceanographic satellite.
Nimbus 7- mapped phyto-plankton populations
TOPEX/ Poseidon- mapped global sea level and got data on ocean –atmosphere interaction.
Global Positioning system- allows ship to determine positions with in a meter

94. SEASAT A

95. TOPEX / POSEIDON