1. Prologue: Psychology’s Roots
Definition of Psychology
The science of behavior (what we do) and mental processes (sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings)

2. Prescientific Psychology
Psychology’s Roots
Prescientific Psychology
OBJECTIVE 2| Trace psychology’s prescientific roots from, from early understandings of mind and body to the beginnings of modern science. Through out human history thinkers have wondered: How do our minds work? How do our bodies relate to our minds? How much of what we know comes built in? How much is acquired through experience?
In India, Buddha wondered how sensations and perceptions combined to form ideas.

3. Prescientific Psychology
Confucius ( B.C.)
In China, Confucius stressed the power of ideas and the importance of an educated mind.

4. Prescientific Psychology
Hebrew Scriptures
Hebrew scriptures linked mind and emotion to the body.

5. Prescientific Psychology
Socrates ( B.C.) and Plato ( B.C.)
Socrates
Plato
Socrates and his student Plato believed the mind was separate from the body, the mind continued to exist after death, and ideas were innate.

6. Prescientific Psychology
Aristotle ( B.C.)
“The soul is not separable from the body, and the same holds good of particular parts of the soul.” Aristotle, De Anima, 350 B.C.
Aristotle suggested that the soul is not separable from the body and that knowledge (ideas) grow from experience.

7. Prescientific Psychology
Rene Descartes ( )
Descartes like Plato believed the immaterial mind and physical body were separate but communicated in the brain at pineal gland. Animal spirits moved from the brain to act on the muscles and experiences lead the nerves to open up “pores” in the brain to form memories. Descartes was right about the nerves connecting the inside and the outside worlds but had no notion of how these nerves functioned.
Descartes, like Plato, believed in soul (mind)-body separation, but wondered how the immaterial mind and physical body communicated.

8. Prescientific Psychology
Francis Bacon ( )
Bacon is one of the founders of modern science, particularly the experimental method.

9. Prescientific Psychology
John Locke ( )
Locke held that the mind was a tabula rasa, or blank sheet, at birth, and experiences wrote on it.

10. Prescientific Psychology
What is the relation of mind to the body?
Mind and body are connected
Mind and body are distinct
The Hebrews
Socrates
Aristotle
Plato
Augustine
Descartes

11. Prescientific Psychology
How are ideas formed?
Some ideas are inborn
The mind is a blank slate
Socrates
Aristotle
Plato
Locke

12. Prologue: Psychology’s Roots
Psychological Science
Is Born
Empiricism
Knowledge comes from
experience via the senses
Science flourishes
through observation
and experiment

13. Wilhelm Wundt
Wundt is referred to as the “father of psychology” and was the first to declare himself a psychologist:
“I am a psychologist”
- Wilhelm Wundt
In 1879 he started the first laboratory in psychology for studying humans.
Using a procedure called “introspection” he introduced scientific procedure to study feelings.
He broke the elements of feelings and thought into parts.

14. Psychological Science is Born
Structuralism
Wundt ( )
Titchener ( )
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how early psychologists sought to understand the mind’s structure and functions, and identify some of the leading psychologists who worked in these areas. Structuralism: Wundt and his student Titchner focused on the elements of mind, and studied it by using introspection (self-reflection). Wundt established the first laboratory of psychology in 1879 at Leipzig, Germany, and wrote the first textbook of psychology.
Wundt and Titchener studied the elements of the mind by conducting experiments at his lab in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879.

15. Psychological Science is Born
Functionalism
James ( )
Mary Calkins
Functionalism: James suggested that it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings than simply studying the elements of mind. Based on the theory of evolution, he suggested that the function of these thoughts and feelings was adaptive. James admitted the first woman student Mary Calkins to Harvard and tutored her. Despite his efforts she was not able to attain her PhD from Harvard.
Influenced by Darwin, William James established the school of functionalism, which opposed structuralism.

16. Prologue: Psychology’s Roots
Functionalism focused on how behavioral processes function- how they enable an organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

17. William James
James is considered to be one of the founders of American psychology.
In 1890, he published Principles of Psychology. The book was pages long, two volumes in length and it took him 12 years to write.
Unlike Wundt, he did not want to break behavior into parts; instead, he never wanted to lose sight of the individual as a whole.

18. Psychological Science is Born
The Unconscious Mind
Freud ( )
Sigmund Freud and his followers emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind and its effects on human behavior.

19. Psychological Science Develops
Behaviorism
Skinner ( )
Watson ( )
OBJECTIVE 4| Describe the evolution of psychology as defined from 1920s to through today. Ivan Pavlov a Russian Physiologist, James Watson and Skinner were all instrumental in developing the science of psychology and emphasized behavior instead of mind or mental thoughts. From 1920 to 1960, psychology in the US was heavily oriented towards behaviorism.
Watson (1913) and Skinner emphasized the study of overt behavior as the subject matter of scientific psychology.

20. Other Pioneers John B. Watson (1878–1958) B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
psychologists should study overt behavior “Father of Behaviorism”
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
American psychologist at Harvard
studied learning and effect of reinforcement
“Father of Operant Conditioning”

21. p. 8 Discovering psy
John B. Watson (1878–1958)

22. p. 8 Discovering psy
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)

24. Psychological Science Develops
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow ( )
Rogers ( )
Maslow and Rogers emphasized current environmental influences on our growth potential and our need for love and acceptance.

25. Psychological Associations & Societies
The American Psychological Association is the largest organization of psychology with 160,000 members world-wide, followed by the British Psychological Society with 34,000 members.

26. Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis
OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the three main levels of analysis in the biopsychosocial approach, and explain why psychology’s varied perspectives are complementary. Biopsychosocial approach considers the influence of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural factors on behavior. Each approach provides an incomplete explanation of behaviors.

27. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Psychology’s Big Issues
Stability vs. Change
Do our individual traits persist as we age?
Do we become older versions of ourselves?

28. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Rationality vs. Irrationality
Rationality– reasonableness, good sense of equity and proportion
Irrationality– not reasonable in thinking or behaving, distorted perception of reality

29. Philosophical Developments
BIG
Another Question:
Nature vs. Nurture
the relative contribution that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits and behaviors
Are abilities determined by our genes or our experiences?
What are the interactions between genetics and environment?
What effect does it have on behavior?
Keywords: materialism, empiricism, nativism

30. Charles Darwin
On the Origin of Species was published in His theory was that humans and animals had evolved and changed. His theory inspired scientists to study animals in order to understand human behavior.

31. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Charles Darwin
Natural selection
principle that those inherited trait variations contributing to survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

32. Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Focus
Sample Questions
Neuroscience
How the body and brain enables emotions
How are messages transmitted in the body? How is blood chemistry linked with moods and motives?
Evolutionary
How the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one’s genes
How does evolution influence behavior tendencies?
Behavior genetics
How much our genes and our environments influence our individual differences
To what extent are psychological traits such as intelligence, personality, sexual orientation, and vulnerability to depression attributable to our genes? To our environment?
Although debates arise among the psychologists working from differing perspectives, each point of view addresses important questions.

33. Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Focus
Sample Questions
Psychodynamic
How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
How can someone’s personality traits and disorders be explained in terms of sexual and aggressive drives or as disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas?
Behavioral
How we learn observable responses
How do we learn to fear particular objects or situations? What is the most effective way to alter our behavior, say to lose weight or quit smoking?

34. Psychology’s Current Perspectives
Focus
Sample Questions
Cognitive
How we encode, process, store and retrieve information
How do we use information in remembering? Reasoning? Problem solving?
Social-cultural
How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
How are we — as Africans, Asians, Australians or North Americans – alike as members of human family? As products of different environmental contexts, how do we differ?

35. Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Psychologist
What she does
Biological
Explore the links between brain and mind.
Developmental
Study changing abilities from womb to tomb.
Cognitive
Study how we perceive, think, and solve problems.
Personality
Investigate our persistent traits.
Social
Explore how we view and affect one another.
OBJECTIVE 7| Identify some of the psychology’s subfields, and explain the difference between clinical psychology and psychiatry.

36. Approaches to Psychology
Biological
Behavioral
Psychoanalytic
Humanistic
Cognitive
Sociocultural

37. Biological Perspective
Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior
Focus may be at various levels
individual neurons
areas of the brain
specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning
Interest in behavior distinguishes biological psychology from many other biological sciences
Keywords: physiological psychology

38. Evolutionary Perspective
Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on innate, adaptive behavior patterns
Application of principles of evolution to explain behavior and psychological processes
Keywords: ethology, Konrad Lorenz, Nikolass Tinbergen
Graphic: picture of Lorenz pg. 16 Gray

39. John B. Watson
Watson studied the impact of learning on people. This led to the school of behaviorism.
He believed that careful and structured parenting could
eliminate psychological problems.
Watson later wrote a book applying scientific methods to raising children.

40. The Behavioral Approach
People such as B. F. Skinner (pictured to the left) and John B. Watson are called behaviorists.
This approach emphasizes that behavior is primarily the result of learning and not due to a person’s thoughts and unconscious processes.

41. Behavioral Perspective
View of behavior based on experience or learning
Classical conditioning-- Pavlov
Operant conditioning-- Skinner

42. Sigmund Freud
Freud developed the first comprehensive theory of human development and behavior, especially how the personality develops.
He believed that childhood memories and thoughts influenced the behavior of people when they became adults.

43. Psychodynamic Perspective
View of behavior based on experience treating patients
Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud)
both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind
behavior reflects combinations of conscious and unconscious influences
drives and urges within the unconscious component of mind influence thought and behavior
early childhood experiences shape unconscious motivations
Keywords: psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud

44. Cognitive Perspective
How is knowledge acquired, organized, remembered, and used to guide behavior?
Influences include
Piaget – studied intellectual development
Chomsky – studied language
Cybernetics – science of information processing
Keywords: cognitive psychology

45. Humanistic Perspective
Developed by Abraham Maslow &
Carl Rogers
behavior reflects innate ‘actualization’
focus on conscious forces and self perception
more positive view of basic forces than Freud’s

47. Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
p. 9 Discovering psychology
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)

48. The Sociocultural Approach
This approach looks at the impact that society, culture, ethnicity, race, and religion have on personality.
Psychoanalytic
Cognitive

49. Cross-Cultural Perspective
The study of psychological differences among people living in different cultural groups
How are people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior influenced by their culture?
What are the common elements across culture? Are these innate?
Keywords: cultural psychology

50. Psychology’s Subfields: Research
Data: APA 1997

51. Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Psychologist
What she does
Clinical
Studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Counseling
Helps people cope with academic, vocational, and marital challenges.
Educational
Studies and helps individuals in school and educational settings
Industrial/
Organizational
Studies and advises on behavior in the workplace.

52. Psychology’s Subfields: Applied
Data: APA 1997

53. Clinical Psychology vs. Psychiatry
A clinical psychologist (Ph.D.) studies, assesses, and treats troubled people with psychotherapy.
Psychiatrists on the other hand are medical professionals (M.D.) who use treatments like drugs and psychotherapy to treat psychologically diseased patients.

56. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Psychology’s Subfields
Basic Research-- laboratory
Biological psychologists explore the links between brain and mind
Developmental psychologists study changing abilities from womb to tomb
Cognitive psychologists study how we perceive, think, and solve problems

57. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Psychology’s Subfields
Basic Research
Personality psychologists investigate our persistent traits
Social psychologists explore how we view and affect one another

58. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Psychology’s Subfields
Applied Research—face to face
Industrial/organizational psychologists study and advise on behavior in the workplace
Clinical psychologists study, assess, and treat people with psychological disorders

59. Prologue: Contemporary Psychology
Psychiatry
A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders
Practiced by physicians who sometimes use medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychotherapy

60. Close-up Your Study of Psychology
Survey, Question, Read, Review and Reflect (SQ3R)
Survey: What you are about to read, including chapter outlines and section heads.
Question: Ask questions. Make notes.
Read: Make sure you read outlines, sections and chapters in entirety.
Review: Margin definitions. Study learning outcomes.
Reflect: On what you learn. Test yourself with quizzes.

61. Additional Study Hints
Close-up
Additional Study Hints
Distribute your time.
Listen actively in class.
Overlearn.
Be a smart test-taker.