1. Lexical Functional Grammar
11-721: Grammars and Lexicons Fall Term 2004

2. Lions seem to live in the forest
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF S
NP VP
N V VP-bar
COMP VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions seem to live in the forest

3. Lions seem to live in the forest
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f1 f2 S n1 f3 n2
NP VP n4 n3
N V VP-bar n5 n6 f4 n7
COMP VP n8 f5 f6
V PP
n10 n9
P NP
n12
n11
DET N
n13
n14
Lions seem to live in the forest

4. Lions seem to live in the forest
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f1 f2 S n1 f3 n2
NP VP n4 n3
N V VP-bar n5 n6 f4 n7
COMP VP n8 f5 f6
V PP
n10 n9
P NP
n12
n11
DET N
n13
n14
Lions seem to live in the forest

5. Properties of the mapping from c-structure to f-structure
Each c-structure node maps onto at most one f-structure node.
More than one c-structure node can map onto the same f-structure node.
An f-structure node does not have to correspond to any c-structure node. (But the information it contains does come from somewhere – either a grammar rule or lexical entry.)

6. The formalism for grammatical encoding : Local co-description of partial structures
Φ is a mapping from c-structure nodes to f-structure nodes.
There are other mappings to semantic structures, argument structures, discourse structures,etc.
* is the “current” c-structure node (me).
Φ(*) is “my f-structure” ()
m(*) is “my c-structure mother”
Φ(m(*)) is “my c-structure mother’s f-structure” ()

7. Local co-description of partial structures
S  NP VP
( SUBJ) =  = 
NP says: My mother’s f-structure has a SUBJ feature whose value is my f-structure.
VP says: My mother’s f-structure is my f-structure.
This rule simultaneously describes a piece of c-structure and a piece of f-structure.
It is local because each equation refers only to the current node and its mother. (page )

8. Other types of equations
F-structure composition
( SUBJ NUM) = sg
My f-structure has a subj feature, whose value is another f-structure, which has a num feature, whose value is sg.
Usually, path names are not longer than two.
Two features pointing to the same value:
( SUBJ) = ( XCOMP SUBJ)
( SUBJ) = ( TOPIC)
( ( CASE)) =  (Dalrymple pages )
Sam walked in the park.
( CASE) = OBL-loc
( OBL-loc) = 

9. The minimal solution
The f-structure for a sentence is the minimal f-structure that satisfies all of the equations. (page 101).

10. Building an F-structure: informal, for linguists
Annotate
Assign a variable name to the f-structure corresponding to each c-structure node.
May find out later that some of them are the same.
Instantiate
Replace the arrows with the variable names.
Solve
Locate the f-structure named on the left side of the equation.
Locate the f-structure named on the right side of the equation
Unify them.
Replace both of them with the result of unification.

11. Lions seem to live in the forest
Rule:
S → NP VP
(↑ SUBJ) = ↓ ↑=↓
(↑VFORM) = fin
Instantiated equations:
(f1 SUBJ) = f2
f1 = f3
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f2 f1 f3
S f1
NP f VP f3
N V VP-bar
COMP VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions seem to live in the forest

12. Lions seem to live in the forest
lion: N seem: V
(↑ PRED) = `lion’ (↑ PRED) =
‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
(↑ SUBJ) =
(↑ XCOMP SUBJ)
-s (suffix for nouns)
(↑ NUM) = pl Ø (suffix for verbs)
(↑ PERS) = (↑ VFORM) = fin
(↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f4 S
NP VP f5
f4 N f5 V VP-bar
COMP VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions seem to live in the forest

13. Lions seem to live in the forest
lion: N seem: V
(f4 PRED) = `lion’ (f5 PRED) =
‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
(f5 SUBJ) =
(f5 XCOMP SUBJ)
-s (suffix for nouns)
(f4 NUM) = pl Ø (suffix for verbs)
(f4 PERS) = (f5 VFORM) = fin
(f5 SUBJ NUM) = pl
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f4 S
NP VP f5
f4 N f5 V VP-bar
COMP VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions seem to live in the forest

14. What is an XCOMP
A non-finite clause, predicate nominal, predicate adjective, or predicate PP
Sam seemed to be happy (VP)
Sam seemed happy (AP)
Sam became a teacher (NP)
We had them arrested (VP)
We kept them in the drawer (PP)
Has to be an argument of a verb:
Arrested by the police, Sam had no alternative but to give up his life of crime.
This is an adjunct, not an XCOMP
Gets its subject by sharing with another verb:
I think that Sam is happy.
This is a COMP, not an XCOMP

15. Lions seem to live in the forest
seem: V
(↑ PRED) = ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
(↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ)
(↑ XCOMP VFORM) = INF
- Ø (suffix for verbs)
(↑ VFORM) = fin
(↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl
VP → V VP
↑=↓ (↑ XCOMP) = ↓
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f3 S f5
NP VP f3 f6 f7
N f5 V f8 VP-bar f8
f6COMP VP f9 f9
f7V PP
P NP
to: COMP Ø (suffix for verbs)
(↑ VFORM) = INF (↑ VFORM) = INF
live: V
(↑ PRED) = `live<theme loc>’
SUBJ OBL
DET N
Lions seem to live in the forest

16. Lions seem to live in the forest
seem: V
(f5 PRED) = ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
(f5 SUBJ) = (f5 XCOMP SUBJ)
(f5 XCOMP VFORM) = INF
- Ø (suffix for verbs)
(f5 VFORM) = fin
(f5 SUBJ NUM) = pl
VP → V VP
f3=f5 (f3 XCOMP) = f8
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘seem < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF f3 S f5
NP VP f3 f6 f7
N f5 V f8 VP-bar f8
f6COMP VP f9 f9
f7V PP
P NP
to: COMP Ø (suffix for verbs)
(f6 VFORM) = INF (f7 VFORM) = INF
live: V
(f7 PRED) = `live<theme loc>’
SUBJ OBL
DET N
Lions seem to live in the forest

17. Lions try to live in the forest
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘try < agent theme >’
SUBJ XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM INF
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF S
NP VP
N V VP-bar
COMP VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions try to live in the forest

18. Lions have lived in the forest
have: V
(↑ PRED) = ‘have < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
(↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ)
(↑ XCOMP VFORM) = PASTPART
- Ø (suffix for verbs)
(↑ VFORM) = fin
(↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘have < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM PASTPART
PRED ‘live< theme loc >’
SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF S
NP VP
N V VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions have lived in the forest

19. Lions were hunted in the forest
were : V
(↑ PRED) = ‘be < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
(↑ SUBJ) = (↑ XCOMP SUBJ)
(↑ XCOMP VFORM) = PASSIVE
(↑ VFORM) = fin
(↑ SUBJ NUM) = pl
SUBJ PRED ‘lion’
NUM pl
PERS
PRED ‘be < theme > SUBJ’
XCOMP
TENSE pres
VFORM fin
XCOMP SUBJ [ ]
VFORM PASSIVE
PRED ‘hunt<agent theme loc >’
Ø SUBJ OBL-loc OBJ
OBL-loc CASE OBL-loc
PRED ‘in<OBJ>’
OBJ PRED ‘forest’
NUM sg
PERS 3
DEF S
NP VP
N V VP
V PP
P NP
DET N
Lions were hunted in the forest