1. Water and Solutions
There’s nothing like an ice cold beverage!.

2. Introduction
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of ions or molecules of two or more substances.
Two parts
Solvent is the part that is in the largest quantity (For us, most of the time the solvent will be water).
Solute is the part that is dissolved in the solvent.
If one of the components of a solution is a liquid it is usually the solvent.
If the solvent is water then the solution is identified as an aqueous solution.

3. Above this city there are at least three kinds of solutions
Above this city there are at least three kinds of solutions. These are (1) gas in gas-oxygen dissolved in nitrogen, (2) liquid in gas-water vapor dissolved in air, and (3) solid in gas-tiny particles of smoke dissolved in the air.

4. Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution describes the relative amounts of the solute and solvent.
Concentrated solution contain large amounts of solute.
Dilute solutions contain little solute
Saturated solutions have in them all the solute they can possibly dissolve… so saturated solutions are concentrated solutions.
Unsaturated solutions have in them less than all the solute they can possibly hold… so unsaturated solutions are dilute solutions.
Supersaturated solutions hold more solute than they could normally dissolve.

5. Two questions How do I know a solution is saturated?
You only know a solution is saturated when you can see that there is undissolved solute.
How do I make a supersaturated solution?
Have you ever made jello?
To make a supersaturated solution, you heat it up so the solvent dissolves more solute, then let it cool.

6. Different ways to express concentration
Parts per million (ppm)
Parts per billion (ppb)
Percent by volume – the volume of solute per 100 volumes of solution
Molarity – number of moles of solute per liter of solution
Molarity = moles solute/liters solution
Molality – number of moles of solute per kilogram of solution
Molality = moles solute/kg of solvent

7. Three ways to express the amount of solute in a solution:
(A) as parts (e.g., parts per million), this is 2 parts per 100;
(B) as a percent by volume, this is 2 percent by volume;
(C) as percent by weight, this is 2 percent by weight.

8. Salinity is a measure of the amount of salts dissolved in 1kg of solution. If 1,000 g of seawater were evaporated, 35.0 g of salts would remain as g of water evaporate.

9. Solubility
A saturated solution is an equilibrium mixture that exists between solute and solvent where the rate of dissolving is equal to the rate at which the solute is coming out of solution.
Solubility is the concentration of solute that can be dissolved to make a saturated solution at a given temperature.
It is important to note that solubility varies with temperature
Solubility of most ionic solids increases with increasing temperature
Solubility of most gases decreases with increasing temperature.

10. Approximate solubility curves for sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate, potassium chloride, and sodium chloride.

11. Properties of Water Molecules
Water is a polar molecule since the oxygen has a greater electronegativity than the hydrogen.
The electrons spend more time around the oxygen, giving it a partial negative charge and giving the hydrogen a partial positive charge.
It is this charge differential that allows most water soluble compounds to dissolve in water.

12. Review (Hopefully...)
The polarity of the water molecule allows it to set up intermolecular forces with other molecules.
The positive end of the water molecule can attract the negative part of another molecule
The negative end of water molecule can attract the positive end of another molecule.
These types of attractions are called van der Waals forces.
Hopefully, you remember that likes dissolve likes.
Since water is polar, it is good at dissolving all ionic compounds (Since they are basically polar with the positive cation and negative ion).

13. The Dissolving Process
There is a limit to the solubility of any molecule in a solution
Some substances do not dissolve to any appreciable amount in a solution.
Fluids that can mix freely with one another are called miscible
Fluids that cannot mix freely are called immiscible

14. Water is polar, and carbon tetrachloride is nonpolar
Water is polar, and carbon tetrachloride is nonpolar. Since like dissolves like, water and carbon tetrachloride are immiscible.

15. Soap cleans oil and grease because one end of the soap molecule is soluble in water, and the other end is soluble in oil and grease. Thus, the soap molecule provides a link between two substances that would otherwise be immiscible.

16. An ionic solid dissolves in water because the number of water molecules around the surface is greater than the number of other ions of the solid. The attraction between polar water molecules and a charged ion enables the water molecules to pull ions away from the crystal, a process called dissolving.

17. Properties of Solutions
Electrolytes
Ionic substances dissolved in an aqueous solution create a charge differential in the solution
Since there is a charge differential there is a potential difference and electrical charge can flow between unlike charged areas.
A solution which can conduct an electrical charge is called an electrolyte
A solution which cannot conduct an electrical charge is called a nonelectrolyte.
Ionic compounds ionize in water, disassociate to form their independent, charged particles.
Acids ionize in water to protonate the water molecule and form a hydronium ion H3O+

18. (A) Water solutions that conduct an electric current are called electrolytes. (B) Water solutions that do not conduct electricity are called nonelectrolytes.

19. Three representations of water and hydrogen chloride in an ionizing reaction. (A) Sketches of molecules involved in the reaction. (B) Electron dot equation of the reaction. (C) The chemical equation for the reaction. Each of these representations shows the hydrogen being pulled away from the chlorine atom to form H3O+, the hydronium ion.

20. Colligative properties
Colligative properties depend on the number of particles, not the type of particles.
The two main colligative properties of concern are boiling point elevation and freezing point depression.
Another colligative property is vapor pressure, but it is basically the same as boiling point.

21. Boiling Point
The boiling point of a solution is the point at which enough energy has been added to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold the solute in the solution.
At this point, the molecules gain enough kinetic energy to produce a pressure that is greater than the atmospheric pressure keeping them in solution
Once this point is reached, the solution vaporizes (becomes a gas)

22. Vapor pressure is the amount of pressure the vaporizing gas in the solution is exerting upward
The rate of evaporation, and thus the vapor pressure, is less for a solution than for a solvent in the pure state. The greater the solute concentration, the less the vapor pressure.

23. Freezing Point
The freezing point of a solution is the point where enough energy has been removed from the solution to slow the molecules down and increase intermolecular forces so the solution becomes a solid

24. Since ionic compounds dissolve by separation of ions, they provide more particles in solution than molecular compounds.
(A) A mole of sugar provides Avogadro's number of particles.
(B) A mole of NaCl provides two times Avogadro's number of particles.
(C) A mole of CaCl2 provides three times Avogadro's number of particles.

25. Acids, Bases, and Salts

26. Properties of Acids and Bases
The properties of acids are:
Sour taste
Change blue litmus paper to red.
React with metals to release hydrogen gas.
Neutralize bases, forming water and salts
The properties of bases are:
Bitter taste
Bases turn red litmus paper blue.
Feel slippery to the skin.
Neutralize acids, forming water and salts.

27. (A)Acid solutions will change the color of blue litmus to red
(A)Acid solutions will change the color of blue litmus to red. (B) Solutions of bases will change the color of red litmus to blue.

28. Explaining Acid-Base Properties
Acid base properties are explained by looking at how they ionize in water.
Equilibrium occurs when two opposing reactions happen at the same time and rate.
H2O + H2O  H3O+ + OH-
This reaction can occur in both directions and chemical equilibrium is reached when the rate of the reaction to the right (the forward reaction) is equal to the rate of the reaction to the left (the reverse reaction)
An acid is defined as a proton donor
A base is defined as any substance that is a proton acceptor

29. Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
Strong acids ionize completely in water
Weak acids ionize only partially in water
Strong bases ionize completely in water.
Weak bases ionize only partially in water.

30. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) has the common name of muriatic acid
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) has the common name of muriatic acid. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid used in swimming pools, soil acidifiers, and stain removers.

31. The pH Scale
Acid base strength is a measure of relative H3O+ and OH- concentrations.
Acidic solutions have concentrations of H3O+ above 1 X 10-7
Neutral solutions have H3O+ concentrations equal to 1 X 10-7
Basic solutions have H3O+ concentrations less than 1 X 10-7
A neutral solution has a pH of 7, acidic solutions have pH below 7, and basic solutions have pH above 7.
Each division of the pH scale is an increase or decrease in concentration to a power of 10, which makes the scale a logarithmic scale

32. The pH scale.

33. The pH increases as the acidic strength of these substances decreases from left to right. Did you know that lemon juice is more acidic than vinegar? That a soft drink is more acidic than orange juice or grapefruit juice?

34. Properties of Salts
A salt is produced by a neutralization reaction between an acid and a base.
A salt is any ionic compound, except for hydroxide or oxides
Hard and Soft Water
A solution of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions is called hard water because soap does not lather up very well in it.
The Ca2+ and Mg2+ replace the sodium or potassium ions in the soap and become insoluble

35. A water softener exchanges sodium ions for the calcium and magnesium ions of hard water. Thus, the water is now soft, but it contains the same number of ions as before.

36. Buffers
A buffer is a mixture of a weak acid with the salt of the acid.
A buffer has the ability to resist changes in pH when small amounts of acids or bases are added to the solution
If small amounts of acid is added, hydronium ions are neutralized by reacting with the salt in solution
If small amounts of base is added, hydroxide ions are neutralized by reacting with the acid.