1. Module 21 - Information Processing
The Phenomenon of Memory

2. Memory
Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Study of memory: How do we
Encode
Store, and
Retrieve
information.
Memory loss – loss of recent memory
Outstanding memory: The case of Shereshevskii
Memory is ANY INDICATION THAT LEARNING HAS PERSISTED OVER TIME:.
Ability to store and retrieve info.
Started unrevealing the underlying dynamics of memory by studying memories extremes...
People with extraordinary capacities or no ability to form memories or no ability to form certain memories- but not others.
WHO WOULD BE MORE LIKELY TO STUDY MEMORY??? – COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGISTS

3. Memory as Information Processing
A model that traces the flow of the information as it is mentally processed.
similar to a computer
One way of studying memory – the more recent and well-accepted model- is to resemble human memory system to a computer processor.
TRACE THE FLOW OF THE INFORMATION AS IT IS MENTALLY PROCESSED.
write to file (encode)
save to disk (store)
read from disk (retrieve)
the information becomes inaccessible (forgetting)
Forgetting: Info becomes inaccessible bc. Of hardware problems or deletion of a file or problems in retrieval.

4. How do we process Information?
Encoding
Retrieval
the processing of information into the memory system --extracting meaning
The process of accessing information in the memory
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time-- short term or long term

5. A Simplified Memory Model
External
events
Sensory
memory
Working / Short-term
Long-term
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
Retrieving
The immediate and brief recording of sensory information
Relatively permanent and limitless storage, including knowledge, skills and experiences
Activated memory that holds a few items briefly

6. Encoding: the short trip from sensory to working memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Automatic
Space, time, frequency
Some processing becomes automatic through practice  interaction with long term memory
Effortful – through conscious effort
Rehearsal
How we selectively encode sights, sounds, and other sensations and transfer them into our memory system --- within the 3 memories
Getting information into the system:
Translate inputs (sensory information) into neural language.
Some encoding occurs automatically – some require more effortful processing.
Automatic Processing: Effortless encoding of incidental information
Most of those information are automatically processed.
We encode an enormous amount of info often with little or no effort.
Most information about space, time and frequency is automatically recalled.
It encodes automatically but at the same time it is difficult to shut-off.
-- hear a word in your native language – impossible not to register its meaning.
Effortful Processing
Most other stimuli require conscious effort and attention .
To learn novel names, facts, skills.
Can be improved by:
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage
The amount remembered depends on the time spent on learning
even after initial learning, additional rehearsal improves retention.
Distributed rehearsal yields better long- term retention than massed practice --Spacing Effect
ıf you would try to learn the names of your classmates--- better to distribute this process over time rather than trying to do it just at once.
The longer the space between rehearsal sessions – the better retention.
Example: while studying for comprehensive exams –
Rather than just trying to memorize everyhing all at once – if you practice over time - spread your learning – will result in better outcomeç
LEARNING QUICKLY ALSO RESULTS IN FORGETTING QUICKLY.
WİTH NAMES, NUMBERS AS WELL- rehearse wait rehearse again wait ....

7. WHAT do we encode: Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) and Bahrick (1993)
Conscious repetition of information
More repetition  more time spent rehearsing  better recall
Additional repetition  better recall and retention
Longer the time between rehearsals  better retention
Important implications for your mid-terms!

8. Rehearsal does not benefit all rehearsed information equally: serial position effect
Primacy Effect
Recency Effect

9. HOW do we encode? More effective than visual or acoustic coding
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Meaning
(semantic
encoding)
Imagery
(visual
encoding)
Organization
Still just repeating/rehearsing is not enough to recall.
May need to PROCESS INFO by:
Encoding its meaning
Encoding its image
By mentally organizing it.
Meaning (semantic encoding): when processing verbal information, we usually encode its meaning, associating it with the context.
Eye-screem, ice-cream or I scream.
Imagery: mental pictures.
More easier to recall information that can be encoded visually.
More effective than visual or acoustic coding
Easier to encode if something can be visualized
Chunks
Hierarchies

10. How do we organize information for encoding?
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization—
Which is easier to remember?
often occurs automatically
Hierarchies
Grouping information into few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts of facts.

11. Ways to improve encoding:
Memory aid
Those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Hasan iki salak osman dört (H2SO4)
Other ways to improve encoding – besides simple rehearsal?
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Instead of a list of gorcery items, remember a dish....

12. How do we process Information?
Encoding
Retrieval
the processing of information into the memory system --extracting meaning
The process of accessing information in the memory
Storage
the retention of encoded information over time-- short term or long term

13. Three storages of memory
Within the information-processing model, 3 types of memories are distinguished:
Sensory Memory
Records information from the senses for up to three seconds
Examples are Iconic (Visual) Memory and Echoic (Auditory) Memory
Short-Term Memory
Holds a limited number of items for a brief period before the material is forgotten or transferred to long-term memory
Long-Term Memory
Relatively permanent, can hold vast amounts of information

14. How and where do we store information?
Sensory Memory: preserves fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli
Iconic Memory (visual memory)
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Like taking snapshops of sitmuli
Can store large amounts of information for brief periods
Echoic Memory (auditory memory)
Storing auditory stimuli
Last longer than iconic memory.
The first storage system is the least durable most temporary system. A fleeting system.
The initial recording of sensory stimuli in the memory system.
Iconic memory – a fleeting photographic memory.
İf no iconic memory – you would lose track of what you see- with every blink.
Lets you see things as a continuos film
Echoic memory – auditory processing
In a conversation, you can repeat the last few words spoken. Auditory echo disappears slowly
İf no--- would not connect sounds.

15. How and where do we store information?
Working / Short Term Memory: a small fraction of information receives attention and effortful encoding
STM is limited in duration (a few seconds)
STM is limited in capacity (about 7 bits of information)
Better echoic (auditory) than iconic (visual)
Short term recall for about as many words as you can speak in 2 seconds.
Working memory interacts with long-term memory
Unless we meaningfully encode or rehearse that information – it can disappear quickly
Like the screen of the computer.
New info entered by the keyboard and the old info retireved from the hard disk show up in the screen.
STM contains both new sensory input and material pulled from the long term memory.
Our short term memory is sligtly better for random digits than for random letters because letters’ sounds can interereç

16. Storage: Short-Term Memory
Information coming to the sensory register is encoded and stored in the STM
Has limited capacity memory system
Amount of information it can hold –magical number
Time it can hold that information
Retrieval of information from long-term memory
Unless we meaningfully encode or rehearse that information – it can disappear quickly
7 +/- 2 units