1. Chapter 9
Carbon Chemistry 1

2. 9.1 Carbon Compounds
9.1.1 Relate the structures of three forms of carbon to their properties.
9.1.2 Explain why there are millions of different organic compounds.
9.1.3 Relate the number and arrangement of carbon atoms in hydrocarbons to their properties.
9.1.4 Distinguish saturated from unsaturated hydrocarbons.
9.1.5 Classify hydrocarbons using structural formulas and names. 2

3. 9.1 Carbon Compounds
9.1.6 Describe the formation, composition, and uses of three types of fossil fuels.
9.1.7 Distinguish complete combustion from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels.
9.1.8 Describe the effects of some products of the combustion of fossil fuels. 3

4. 9.1 Carbon Compounds
Until 1828, chemists divided compounds into those that could be and those that could not be produced by organisms.
The compounds that could be produced by organisms were called organic compounds.
In 1828, Friedrich Wohler, a German chemist, produced urea in the lab – a compound produced in the livers of many organisms.
Wohler had synthesized the first organic compound. 4

5. 9.1 Carbon Compounds
An ORGANIC COMPOUND contains carbon and hydrogen, sometimes combined with other elements like oxygen or nitrogen.
More than 90% of all known compounds are organic compounds.
Most bonds in organic compounds are carbon-carbon bonds.
REMEMBER: carbon has 4 valence electrons -so it can form 4 single bonds, 2 double bonds, a triple and a single bond, a double bond and two single bonds….. 5

6. 9.1 Carbon Compounds FORMS OF CARBON
The element carbon exists in several forms, all with different properties. (called allotropes)
DIAMOND
GRAPHITE
FULLERENES
In each form there is a different arrangement of carbon atoms. 6

7. Forms of Carbon-Diamond
No substance is harder than diamond.
Diamond is an example of a NETWORK SOLID.
All the atoms of carbon are linked by COVALENT BONDS.
A network solid is sometimes described as a single molecule.
Covalent bonds link each carbon atom to four other carbon atoms. 7

8. Forms of Carbon-Diamond
Diamond is harder than other substances because cutting a diamond requires cutting many covalent bonds. 8

9. Forms of Carbon- Graphite
Graphite has very different properties than diamond.
It is soft and slippery.
Carbon atoms are arranged in widely spaced layers.
Carbon atoms form covalent bonds with 3 other carbon atoms.
Bonds between layers are weak which allows layers to slide past one another. 9

10. Forms of Carbon- Graphite
Because graphite is slippery, it makes a good lubricant for moving metal parts.
Pencil “lead” is a mixture of graphite and clay.
The layers of graphite “slide” off as you write on the paper. 10

11. Forms of Carbon-Fullerenes
Discovered in 1985, a new form of carbon was found in soot.
Fullerenes are large, hollow spheres or cages of carbon. They have also been found in meteorites.
The cage is composed of 60 carbon atoms arranged in alternating patterns of hexagons and pentagons. (like a soccer ball) 11

12. Forms of Carbon-Fullerenes
The C 60 molecule is called buckminsterfullerene after Buckminster Fuller, an architect who designed domes with similar geometric patterns.
Chemists call them “BUCKY BALLS” 12

13. Saturated Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is an organic compound that contains only the elements HYDROGEN AND CARBON.
In a SATURATED HYDROCARBON, all of the bonds are single bonds.
A saturated hydrocarbon contains the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom. 13

14. Saturated Hydrocarbons
Another name for a saturated hydrocarbon is an ALKANE.
Names of alkane compounds end in –ane, like methane and propane. 14

15. Saturated Hydrocarbons
The properties of a hydrocarbon are determined by the :
Number of carbon atoms
How the atoms are arranged
Carbon atoms can be arranged in a:
straight chain,
a branched chain,
or a ring. 15

16. Straight Chain Alkanes
Straight Chain Hydrocarbons
Straight Chain Alkanes
Name
Methane
Propane
Pentane
Octane
Molecular Formula
CH4
C3H8
C5H12
C8H18
Structural Formula
Boiling Point
-161.6 °C
−42.09 °C
36.1 °C °C 16

17. Straight Chain Hydrocarbons
A molecular formula shows the type and number of atoms in a molecule of the compound.
A structural formula shows how those atoms are arranged.
The number of carbon atoms in a straight-chain alkane affects the state of the alkane at room temperature.
Methane and propane are gases, pentane and octane are liquids.
The more carbon atoms added to the chain, the higher the boiling point is. 17

18. Branched Chains These 2 compounds are butane and isobutane.
They have identical molecular formulas but their structural formulas are different.
Compounds with the same molecular formula and different structural formulas are ISOMERS. 18

19. Branched Chains
Differences in structure affect some of the physical properties of isomers (boiling point).
The number of possible isomers increases rapidly each time an additional carbon atom is added to the chain.
Octane (8 carbons) has 18 isomers,
Decane (10 carbons) has 75 isomers! 19

20. Rings – Cyclic hydrocarbons
Carbon atoms form rings with bonds with two other carbon atoms.
Cyclo-alkanes have 2 fewer hydrogen atoms than their straight-chain alkanes. 20

21. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon that contains one or more double bonds is an UNSATURATED HYDROCARBON.
They are classified by :
Bond type and
The arrangement of their carbon atoms.
There are 3 types of unsaturated hydrocarbons:
Alkenes
Alkynes
And aromatic hydrocarbons 21

22. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkenes
There is a double bond between two carbon atoms in an alkene.
Hydrocarbons that have one or more carbon-carbon double bonds are alkenes.
All names of alkenes end in –ene.
Ethene is a gas produced by many fruit-bearing plants. 22

23. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Alkynes
Alkynes are straight or branched-chain hydrocarbons that have one or more triple bonds.
Alkyne names end in –yne.
Alkynes are the most reactive hydrocarbon compounds.
Ethyne (also known as acetylene) is used to melt metals for welding. 23

24. Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons that contain ring structures with alternating single and double bonds are aromatic hydrocarbons.
Many of these compounds have strong aromas and odors.
Discovered by a Belgian chemist, Friedrich Kekule’. 24

25. http://v. youku. com/v_show/id_XMTM0MTYyODA2MA==. html. spm=a2h0k

26. Poster on hydrocarbon of your choice
Poster on hydrocarbon of your choice

27. Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons that formed from the remains of plants or animals that lived and died in the Earth's oceans and swamps millions of years ago.
The remains were buried under layers of rock and soil.
High temperatures and pressure deep in the Earth’s crust changed those remains into deposits of hydrocarbons. 27

29. Fossil Fuels Three types of fossil fuels are: Coal, Natural Gas,
And Petroleum
The type of fossil fuel produced depends on the origin of the organic material and the conditions under which it decays. 29

30. Coal
Coal is a solid fossil fuel that began to form about 300 million years ago in ancient swamps.
Made from the remains of giant trees and ferns buried in those swamps (plants only!)
Most of the hydrocarbons in coal are aromatic hydrocarbons with high molar masses.
These compounds have a high ratio of carbon to hydrogen – SO- burning coal produces more soot than burning other fossil fuels.
Ted-ed How to create cleaner coal - Emma Bryce 30

31. 31

32. MAJOR TYPES OF COAL
PEAT – remains of plant material – usually found in BOGS – with long periods of time, heat, and pressure – begins changing to hard coal
LIGNITE – softest coal
Contains a lot of moisture – it is brownish-black and crumbles easily – mainly used at ELECTRICITY GENERATING PLANTS
SUB-BITUMINOUS – medium-soft coal – less moisture than lignite – used mostly for steam production for electricity generation
BITUMINOUS – medium-hard coal
Contains little moisture and has a high heat value – is widely used to generate electricity and make coke used in the steel industry
ANTHRACITE – hardest coal
Has a HIGH heat value – burns slowly and makes a good home heating fuel 32

33. The peat bogs of Ireland

34. Natural Gas
Natural gas is formed from the remains of marine organisms.
The main component of natural gas is methane (yes-fart gas)
Natural gas also contains ethane, propane, and isomers of butane.
Natural gas is used in homes for heating and cooking and to generate electricity.
Deposits of natural gas are found along with deposits of coal and petroleum. 34

35. Petroleum Petroleum also formed from the remains of marine organisms.
Petroleum – also called CRUDE OIL- is pumped from deep beneath Earth’s surface.
It is a liquid mixture of hydrocarbons, long branched alkanes and alkenes.
In order to use petroleum, it must be separated into simpler mixtures – or fractions – such as gasoline and heating oil. 35

36. Fractional Distillation
Petroleum is separated by a process called FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
Heating petroleum in a distillation tower, the hydrocarbons vaporize and are collected as the temperature decreases and the vapors condense.
Ted-ed. How do we separate the seemingly inseparable? - Iddo Magen 36

37. 37

38. Combustion of Fossil Fuels
The primary products of the complete combustion of fossil fuels are carbon dioxide and water.
The energy released from fossil fuels through combustion (burning) is used to heat buildings, cook food, and for transportation.
Burning fossil fuels increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide are produced during the combustion of fossil fuels. 38

39. Combustion of Fossil Fuels
Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels occurs when there is not enough oxygen available for complete combustion of all the fuel.
A deadly gas, carbon monoxide, is produced. It is a colorless, odorless gas that can be inhaled or absorbed by the blood.
Carbon monoxide interferes with the oxygen carrying capability of hemoglobin in the blood.
Homes that use natural gas or heating oil should all have carbon monoxide detectors. 39

40. Combustion of Fossil Fuels
When incomplete combustion occurs in factories and power plants, small particles of carbon are released.
Inhaling these particles can cause heart and lung problems. 40

41. Acid Rain
The combustion of fossil fuels causes the acidity of rain to increase.
Rain is always slightly acidic because carbon dioxide dissolves in water droplets and forms carbonic acid.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released from burning fossil fuels, dissolve into water droplets and form sulfuric and nitric acid.
Some acid rain can have a pH as low as 2.7. 41

42. 42

43. Acid Rain
Increasing levels of acid rain are responsible for killing lakes, fish, and forests.
Statues, buildings, monuments, metal, concrete and grave markers are also damaged from the acidic rain. 43

44. http://v. youku. com/v_show/id_XMzU4ODc4MzI4. html. spm=a2h0k. 8191407

46. 9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons
9.2.1 Classify substituted hydrocarbons based on their functional groups.
9.2.2 Describe some properties and reactions of five types of substituted hydrocarbons. 46

47. The functional group concept explained | The Chemistry Journey | The Fuse School

48. Substituted Hydrocarbons
In a methane molecule (CH4) the carbon atom has four identical attachments – the hydrogen atoms.
When methane reacts with chlorine, chlorine atoms replace hydrogen atoms.
Organic compounds containing chlorine or other halogens are halocarbons.
Halocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons – CFC’S) were banned in These were found to be depleting the ozone layer. 48

49. Substituted Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an atom or group of atoms is called a SUBSTITUTED HYDROCARBON.
The substituted atom or group of atoms is called a FUNCTIONAL GROUP, because it determines the properties of the compound. 49

50. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS Some functional groups are: Alcohols Organic acids
Organic bases
Esters
And many others… 50

51. Alcohols
The functional group in an alcohol is a hydroxyl group, -OH – names of alcohols end in -ol
Methanol is used as a fuel in some motorcycles - CH3OH
Ethanol is mixed with gasoline
- CH3-CH2-OH
When a halocarbon reacts with a base, the products are an alcohol and a salt. 51

52. Organic Acids
The functional group in organic acids is a carboxyl group, -COOH.
Names of organic acids end in –oic
Organic acids have taste and strong odors.
Methanoic acid is the simplest
Ethanoic acid is vinegar
Formic acid is from ants 52

53. Organic Bases The organic base is the amine.
The functional group of the amine is the amino group, -NH2
Amines are found in the smell of rotten fish, paint, dyes, and disinfectants.
Amines are also responsible for amino acids. 53

54. Esters Esters form when organic acids react with alcohols.
CH3OH + CH3COOH  CH3COOCH3 + H2O
Methanol + Ethanoic acid  Methyl ethanoate + water
Esters account for the flavors of many foods and the pleasant odors of flowers.
Esters are used to produce flavors such as strawberry, banana, and grape.
Ester names end in –oate. 54

55. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS Some functional groups are: Alcohols - OH -ol
Organic acids - COOH -oic acid
Organic bases - NH2
Esters - COO - oate
And many others… 55

57. 9.3 Polymers 9.3.1 Distinguish a monomer from a polymer.
9.3.2 Compare three examples of synthetic polymers.
9.3.3 Describe the structures and functions of four types of natural polymers. 57

58. Polymers 58

59. Polymers
A POLYMER is a large molecule that forms when many smaller molecules are linked together by covalent bonds.
The smaller molecules that join together to form a polymer are called MONOMERS.
Polymers can be classified as:
Natural polymers or Synthetic polymers 59

60. Synthetic Polymers
The properties of a polymers depend on the NUMBER and TYPE of MONOMERS in the polymer.
RUBBER, NYLON, and POLYETHYLENE are three examples of compounds that can be synthesized. 60

61. Rubber
Rubber trees that grow in tropical regions have sap that was originally used for rubber.
Why would a chemist want to make synthetic rubber?
Natural rubber (sap) and synthetic rubber (made in the lab) have different monomers and therefore, different properties.
Synthetic rubber is better suited for tires and adhesives. 61

62. Nylon
In 1930, Wallace Carothers was trying to produce a synthetic polymer to replace silk.
The polymer he produced was NYLON.
Some of nylon’s properties are not found in natural silk:
Nylon is much stronger, more durable, and is shiny.
Nylon is found in parachutes, fishing line, carpets, ropes, and pantyhose. 62

63. Polyethylene
Plastic wrap, toys, plastic milk jugs, garbage bags…. The list is endless
All made from repeating units of ethene or ethylene molecules linked together
The NUMBER OF CARBON ATOMS in a polyethylene chain affects the properties of the polymer.
The MORE CARBON ATOMS IN THE CHAIN, THE HARDER THE POLYMER IS. +  + 63

64. Natural Polymers
Almost all large molecules produced by organisms are polymers.
Four types of polymers produced in plant and animal cells are:
STARCHES
CELLULOSE
NUCLEIC ACIDS
PROTEINS 64

65. Starches
Sugars are responsible for many of the sweet tasting foods that animals are attracted to – like corn and grains.
Simple sugars have the formula C6 H12 O6
They can exist as straight chains or rings.
The simple sugars glucose and fructose together bond to make sucrose (table sugar)
All sugar names end in
-ose 65

66. Starches Glucose monomers join to form starches.
A starch contains hundreds of glucose monomers.
Plants store starches for food and to build stems, seeds, and roots.
Sugars and the polymers they form are all classified as CARBOHYDDRATES. 66

67. Sugars Single sugars are MONOSACCHARIDES
Double sugars are DISACCHARIDES
Many sugars are POLYSACCHARIDES 67

68. Cellulose
The carbohydrate cellulose is the main component of cotton and wood.
It is the most abundant of all organic compounds found in nature.
Cellulose molecules contain 3000 or more glucose monomers.
Cellulose gives strength to plant stems and tree trunks.
Most animals cannot digest cellulose – bean farts, BEANO, cabbage, etc… 68

69. Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are large, nitrogen-containing polymers found mainly in the nuclei of cells.
These are the molecules that store the information about the plant or animal’s structure and function.
There are 2 types of nucleic acids:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) 69

70. Nucleic acid The monomers in a nucleic acid are nucleotides.
There are three parts to a DNA nucleotide:
A phosphate group
Deoxyribose sugar
Organic base : adenine, cytosine, thymine, uracil, guanine. 70

71. DNA When the 2 strands of DNA pair up:
The ADENINE pairs with the THYMINE
The CYTOSINE pairs with the GUANINE
The bonds are strong intermolecular attractions between the hydrogen atoms on one strand and the nitrogen or oxygen atoms on the other strand.
The twisting of the structure is called the double-helix. 71

72. PROTEINS
An amino acid is a compound that contains both a carboxyl group (-COOH) from the organic acids and an amine group (-NH2) from the organic bases, both in the same molecule.
There are about 20 amino acids that your body needs to function.
Some amino acids can be manufactured by your body.
The essential amino acids that you cannot make must come from the foods you eat. 72

73. Proteins
Proteins are the polymers constructed from amino acid monomers.
A protein is a polymer constructed of at least 100 amino acids monomers.
The monomers are linked through bonds between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the neighboring amino acid. 73

74. Proteins
The instructions for the construction of a protein are coded in your DNA.
Proteins make up the fibers in your muscles, hair, fingernails, and hemoglobin of your blood. 74

75. 9.4 Reactions in Cells
9.4.1 Compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
9.4.2 Explain how enzymes and vitamins help reactions take place in cells. 75

76. Photosynthesis What do you remember from elementary school?
Something plants do…..
Breathe in carbon dioxide, let out oxygen for us to breathe…..
What do we need to learn, now that we understand some chemistry? 76

77. Photosynthesis
During photosynthesis, plants chemically combine carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates (sugars).
The process requires LIGHT and CHLOROPHYLL, the green pigment in plants.
During photosynthesis, energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy (glucose sugar). 77

78. Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis involves a complex series of chemical reactions (you will learn about these next year in Biology!!)
When all the reactions are complete, the energy from sunlight has been stored in the covalent bonds of molecules (glucose sugar). 78

79. Cellular Respiration
C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
Photosynthesis teaches us how a plant uses energy – how does your body use energy? Where does it come from?
During cellular respiration, the energy stored in the products of photosynthesis is released.
Cellular respiration is also a series of complex reactions.
Carbon dioxide and water are REACTANTS in photosynthesis and PRODUCTS of cellular respiration. 79

80. Cellular Respiration
Carbohydrates (sugars) and oxygen are REACTANTS in cellular respiration and PRODUCTS in photosynthesis.
C6H12O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
In cellular respiration, glucose is reacting with oxygen.
The glucose comes from simple sugars or complex starches (polymers of sugars).
Digestion breaks starches into simple sugars (glucose). 80

81. Cellular Respiration
Breaking down a polymer (starch) into its monomers (sugars) is the process of depolymerization.
Fats are also an extremely good source of energy.
One gram of fat produces twice the energy of one gram of a carbohydrate. 81

82. Enzymes and Vitamins
Many of the reactions in your body cannot happen fast enough without some help.
We can heat up a reaction to help it speed up – but that doesn’t work well in the body!
Enzymes and vitamins are compounds that help cells function efficiently at normal body temperature. 82

83. Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for reactions in cells.
Enzymes allow reactions to proceed faster at much lower temperatures than would normally happen.
Your body uses thousands of enzymes to control reactions within your cells. 83

84. Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that organisms need in small amounts, but cannot produce.
Water soluble vitamins (vitamin C), get eliminated by the body and must be replaced everyday.
Fat soluble vitamins (vitamin A) can build up in the body over time and taking too many can be harmful. 84

85. Sailors suffered from scurvy -without rations of vitamin C
Sailors suffered from scurvy -without rations of vitamin C. They took limes on long voyages. 85

86. Deficiencies in vitamin D and a lack of adequate calcium can lead to rickets – a disease characterized by soft and deformed bones.
Look at your milk carton !
Vitamin D enriched milk 86