1. What Is Sociology? The systematic study of human society. Systematic
Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior.
Human Society
Group behavior is the primary focus; how groups influence individuals and vice versa.
At the “heart of sociology” is the sociological perspective, which offers a unique view of society.

2. The Sociological Perspective
1. Seeing the general in the particular.
Looking for general patterns in the behavior of particular people.
Society shapes our life experiences, so we can learn something about society (the general) in behavior (the particular).
2. Seeing the strange in the familiar.
Looking for oddities and studying exceptions.
Not taking for granted that which normally is taken for granted.

3. The Sociological Perspective
3. Seeing personal choice in social context.
People don’t simply just decide to do things.
Ex: Durkheim’s 1897 Suicide Study
Men, Protestants, Unmarried, Wealthy  High Suicide Rates
Why?
Explained differences in suicide rates based on social integration and social ties.

4. Suicide Rates Across the U. S
Suicide Rates Across the U.S. Does this map support of refute Durkheim’s theory? Why?

5. The Sociological Imagination
Similar to the SP.
Term coined by C. Wright Mills.
Transforms personal problems into public issues.
A critical quality of mind that helps people “to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves” (Mills).
The understanding that social outcomes are shaped by social context, social actors, and social actions.

6. Sociological Theory

7. Sociological Theory
Theory - a statement of how and why facts are related
Sociological theory explains social behavior in the real world
Theories are tested by gathering evidence.
2 Fundamental Questions in Theory Building:
What issues should we study?
How should we connect the facts?

8. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Sociological Theory
Sociologists look to one or more theoretical approaches to formulate theory.
Theoretical Approach (or Paradigm) - a set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking
3 Major Sociological Paradigms
Structural-Functional
Social-Conflict
Symbolic-Interaction
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

9. Structural –Functional Paradigm
S-F Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability
Points to social structure, any relatively stable pattern of social behavior
Shape our lives!
Examples: Families, the Workplace, Education

10. Structural Functionalism
Looks for each SS’s social functions, the consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole
All social patterns function to tie people together and to keep society going in its present form
Macro-Level Orientation – a broad focus on social structures that shape society a whole
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

11. Who’s Who in S-F? Auguste Comte Emile Durkheim Herbert Spencer
Pointed out the need to keep society unified when traditions were breaking down rapidly.
Emile Durkheim
Helped establish sociology as a university discipline.
Herbert Spencer
Compared society to the human body (the organic approach).
Talcott Parsons
Sought to identify tasks that every society must perform.
Robert K. Merton
Pointed out that social structures all have many functions, some more obvious than others.
Distinguished between:
Manifest & Latent Functions
Dysfunctions (-)

12. Merton on Functions
Manifest Functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern
Latent Functions – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern
Example: Higher Education
Manifest Functions?
Provide information and skills people need to hold jobs.
Latent Functions?
Marriage Brokering
Limiting Unemployment

13. Sociology, Eleventh Edition
Merton on Functions
But not all the effects of social structure are good…
Social Dysfunction – any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society
Examples?
Increasing Income Inequality
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

14. Social-Conflict Paradigm
Social-Conflict Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change
Highlights how factors such as class, race, ethnicity, gender, and age are linked to inequality in terms of money, power, education, and social prestige
Rejects the S-F idea that social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole, focusing instead on how any social pattern benefits some people while hurting others

15. Social-Conflict Paradigm
S-C theorists look at ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people.
People on top try to protect their privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.
Example: Higher Education
Schooling reproduces class inequality from one generation to the next by “tracking” students into either college prep or vocational courses.
Many sociologists use S-C analysis to help reduce inequality.
Macro-Level Orientation
Who’s Who?: Karl Marx - Emphasized the importance of social class in inequality and social conflict.

16. The Gender-Conflict Approach
Gender-Conflict Approach – a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men
Closely linked to feminism, support for social equality for women and men.
Importance lies in making us aware of how society places men in positions of power over women.
Examples:
Home  Men = Head of Household
Workplace  Men = More Income & Powerful Positions
Mass Media  Women = Sexualized

17. The Race-Conflict Approach
Race-Conflict Approach – a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories
Importance lies in making us aware of how society places select groups in positions of power over minorities.

18. Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
Symbolic-Interaction Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals
Micro-Level Orientation – a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations

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Symbolic Interaction
Sees society as nothing more than the reality that people construct for themselves as they interact with one another.
We live in a word of symbols and we attach meaning to virtually all of these.
Example: Words, Wink, Flag
Therefore we create reality as we define our surroundings, decide what we think of others, and shape our own identities.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

20. Who’s Who in S-I? Max Weber (Doesn’t really fit in any one paradigm.)
Taught us to understand a setting from the actor’s point of view
George Herbert Mead
Examined how personalities develop from social experience.
Erving Goffman
Creator of dramaturgical analysis, which describes how we resemble actors on a stage as we play out our various roles.

21. Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict
Too broad.
Ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender.
Focuses on stability at the expense of conflict.
Social-Conflict
Ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society.
Pursues political goals.
Symbolic-Interaction
Ignores larger social structures.
Ignores the effects of culture.
Ignores factors such as class, gender & race

22. False Division This is a false division.
The fullest understanding of our social world comes from using all the paradigms.
Sociologists rarely identify with just one paradigm.
May change from project-to-project.
May change over the course of their career.
May combine multiple paradigms.

23. Applying the Paradigms: Sports
Functions of Sports
S-F approach looks at the ways in which sports help society operate.
What are the functions of sports?
Manifest – providing recreation, a means of getting in physical shape, harmless way to let off steam
Latent – building social relationships, creating jobs, encouraging competition and the pursuit of success (both American ideals)
Dysfunctional – recruiting to college based on athletic ability instead of academic prowess

24. Applying the Paradigms: Sports
Sports and Conflict
S-C analysis of sports points out that the games people play reflect their social standing.
Income, Gender, Race
Also points out that sports are a big business that provides big profits for a small number of people.

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Sports as Interaction
Sports as Interaction
Views sporting events as complex, face-to-face interactions.
Guided by Rules
But people are still spontaneous and unpredictable.
Sports are seen as an ongoing process rather than a system.
Each player understands and interprets the game a little differently.
The behavior of any single player may change overtime.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

26. Society: The Basics, 10th Edition by John Macionis
Race and Sport: “Stacking” in Professional Football Does race play a part in professional sports? Looking at the various positions in professional football, we see that white players are more likely to play the central and offensive positions. What do you make of this pattern? Source: Lapnick (2007)
Society: The Basics, 10th Edition by John Macionis
Copyright  2009 by Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ All rights reserved.

27. Research Methods

28. How Do We Know? Belief or Faith Expert Testimony Simple Agreement
Science - a logical system that bases knowledge on direct systematic observation
Relies on evidence.
Most widely accepted way of knowing.
This is where sociology falls.

29. Common Sense vs. Scientific Evidence
“Poor people are far more likely than rich people to break the law.”
“The United States is a middle-class society in which most people are more or less equal.”
“Most poor people don’t want to work.”
“Differences in the behavior of females and males are just ‘human nature.’ ”
All of these are disputed by sociological evidence!

30. Sociological Investigation
What do Sociologists study?
Anything and everything!
Where do Sociologists study?
Anywhere there are people!
There is a “Sociology of ________” almost everything!
Music
Food
Sports t

31. 3 Frameworks for Investigation
Scientific/Positivist Sociology: the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Relies on empirical evidence, which is information we can verify with our senses.
Interpretive Sociology: the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world
Critical Sociology: the study of society that focuses on the need for change

32. Positivist Sociology
Positivist Sociology - the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior
Main Question: How does society work?
Concepts, Variables, and Measurement
Concept – a mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form
Examples: Family, Economy, Social Class, Gender
Variable – a concept whose values change from case to case
Examples: Height, Social Class

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Positivist Sociology
Measurement - a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Some variables are really easy to measure.
Ex: Blood Pressure
Others, particularly sociological variables, are more difficult.
Ex: Social Class
Researchers have to make decisions about how to operationalize a variable, stating exactly what they are measuring.
Sociology, Eleventh Edition

34. Positivist Sociology Statistics
Sociologists often deal with and study large numbers of people.
How can we easily report income for thousands or even millions of people?
List of Everyone
Descriptive Statistics – state what is “average” for a large population - Most Common?
Mean – the arithmetic average of all measures
Median – the score at the halfway point in an ascending series of numbers
Mode – the score that occurs most often

35. Positivist Sociology Reliability & Validity
Measurements must be both reliable and valid.
Reliability – consistency in measurement
Do repeated measurements give the same result each time?
Validity – actually measuring what you intend to measure
Is your measure actually gathering data on what you are interested in?
Objectivity
PS calls for researchers to be neutral, objective and value-free.

36. Positivist Sociology Correlation & Cause
Correlation – a relationship in which two or more variables change together
Cause & Effect – a relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another
Ex: ↓ Social Integration  ↑ Suicide Rates (Durkheim 1897)
Correlation ≠ Causation
Just because two variables change together does NOT mean that they have a cause and effect relationship.
When two variables change together, but neither one causes the other, sociologists describe the relationship as spurious.
It is usually the result of some third factor.
Ex: ↑ Ice Cream Sales  Assaults
Spurious Variable? Summer

37. Limitations of Scientific Sociology
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions.
Findings represent how categories of people typically act
The mere presence of the researcher may affect the behavior being studied
Hawthorne Effect
Social patterns change across time & place
Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.

38. Interpretive Sociology
Interpretive Sociology - the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world
Major Q: How do people attach meaning to their actions?
PS holds close to science and is well-suited for lab research whereas IS does not hold as close to science and is better suited for fieldwork.
Quantitative Data – numerical measurements of outward behavior
Qualitative Data – researchers’ perceptions of how people understand their world
Positivist Sociology
Interpretive Sociology
Focus: Observable Action
Focus: Meaning of Action
Reality: Exists “Out There”
Reality: Socially Constructed
Data: Quantitative
Data: Qualitative

39. Critical Sociology
Critical Sociology - the study of society that focuses on the need for social change
The Importance of Change
Main Q: Should society exist in its present form?
Makes value judgments about how society should be changed and seeks to improve society.
Often CS is used to provide a voice for less powerful people and to advance the goal of a more equal society.

40. Ethical Guidelines for Research
Sociologists Should…
Strive to be technically competent & fair-minded.
Disclose findings in full without omitting significant data & be willing to share their data.
Protect the safety, rights and privacy of subjects.
Obtain informed consent (IC).
IC – subjects are aware of the risks and responsibilities and agree to participate
Disclose all sources of funding and avoid conflicts of interest.
Demonstrate cultural sensitivity.
Submit to IRB review.
Examples of Violations:
Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
Tuskegee Syphilis Studies

41. Research Methods

42. Methods of Research
Research Method – a systematic plan for doing research
4 Common Methods:
Experiments
Surveys
Participant Observation
Secondary Data

43. Experiments
Experiments – a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
Explanatory (asks why)
Tests Hypotheses
Hypothesis - a statement of possible relationship between 2 or more variables; if-then statements
Ideal Experiment has 4 Steps:
Specify the IV and DV. (Conceptualization & Operationalization)
Measure the initial value of the DV. (Pre-Test)
Expose the DV to the IV. (Stimulus)
Measure the DV again. (Post-Test)
Sometimes use Experimental and Control Groups
Experimental: Receives IV
Control: Receives Nothing or Placebo

44. Survey Research
Survey – a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview
Descriptive; good for studying attitudes.
Population vs. Sample
Population - the people who are the focus of the research
Sample - the part of the population that represents the whole
Random vs. Non-Random
Random  All Subjects Have Equal Chance of Selection

45. Survey Research Two Types of Surveys:
Questionnaire – a series of written questions a researcher presents to subjects
Open-Ended vs. Close-Ended – Examples?
Administration – Self vs. Interviewer; Phone vs. Mail
Interviews - a series of questions a researcher administers in person to respondents
Rapport, Probing, Influence
Piloting – testing the survey on a small group before launching it fully; ensures that a survey is understandable

46. Other Research Methods
Participant Observation - a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining in their routine activities
AKA fieldwork, ethnography, case study
Exploratory & Descriptive
Entrée, Key Informant
Secondary Analysis - a research method in which a researcher uses data collected by others
Examples?
Census & GSS
Houston Area Survey

47. 10 Steps In Sociological Investigation
Select and define a topic.
What is your topic?
Review the literature.
What have others already learned?
Develop key questions to ask.
What, exactly, are your questions?
Assess requirements for study.
What will you need to carry out research?
Consider ethical issues.
Are there ethical concerns?

48. 10 Steps In Sociological Investigation
Select a research methodology.
What method will you use?
Collect the data.
How will you record the data?
Interpret the findings.
What do the data tell you?
State conclusions.
What are your conclusions?
Publish the findings.
How can you share what you have learned?

49. Conclusion
Sociology is simply a new way of knowing that can benefit you in many ways.
Studying sociology requires:
The Sociological Perspective
The Sociological Imagination
Sociologists build theory and gather evidence because sociology is a science.
There are three major theoretical paradigms in sociology:
Structural-Functional
Symbolic-Interaction
Social-Conflict

50. Conclusion “Common sense” about the social world is often inaccurate.
There are three major methods of sociological inquiry:
Scientific Sociology
Interpretive Sociology
Critical Sociology
There are four major methods of sociological investigation:
Experiments
Surveys
Participant Observation
Secondary Analysis
There are two ways to build theory: inductive & deductive.
However, sociology – like all sciences – involves several steps including interpretation and presentation which can “spin” reality.