1. Policing America: Issues and Ethics
Chapter 7
Policing America: Issues and Ethics
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

2. Chapter Objectives, 1
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the general attitude of the public toward the police
Summarize the steps in an effective police officer selection process
Identify factors that affect the exercise of police discretion and methods of limiting discretion
Describe two general ways that law enforcement agencies can reduce stress on the job

3. Chapter Objectives, 2
Explain the circumstances under which police officers may be justified in using deadly force
List some of the ways to control and reduce police corruption

4. The Police and the Public
To carry out the duties of law enforcement, order maintenance, service, and information gathering successfully, the police must have the trust and cooperation of the public
The manner in which they carry out those functions determines the community’s respect for and trust in the police

5. Public Attitudes toward the Police, 1
What do people think of the police?
Depend on:
What you ask
Whom you ask
People’s prior experience

6. Public Attitudes toward the Police, 2
Overall, in 2015, 52% of the public had “a great deal” (25%) or “quite a lot” (27%) of confidence in the police
When asked to rate the honesty and ethical standards of the police in December 2015, 56% of the public rated the police “very high” or “high” on this measure

7. Figure 7.1: Americans’ Ratings of Honesty and Ethics of Police
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8. Public Attitudes Toward the Police, 3
Data clearly show that the public as a whole has more respect for the police and their honesty and ethical standards than it does for a variety of other occupations
Yet, the level of respect and confidence is not particularly high, nor is it uniform across races and ethnicities
Although most of the public believes that the police do a pretty good job, it also believes there is much room for improvement

9. Police Recruitment and Selection
Police departments should hire the type of officers the community wants, but deciding what the community wants is a difficult task involving different people with different opinions
Selection decisions have momentous long-term implications for a police department

10. Qualities of a Successful Police Officer, 1
Robert B. Mills, a pioneer in the psychological testing of police officers, believes that police applicants should possess the following psychological qualities:
Motivation for a police career
Normal self-assertiveness
Emotional stability under stress
Sensitivity toward minority groups and social deviates

11. Qualities of a Successful Police Officer, 2
Collaborative leadership skills
A mature relationship with social authority
Flexibility
Integrity and honesty
An active and outgoing nature

12. Qualities of a Successful Police Officer, 3
Particularly important qualities are known as the three I’s of police selection
The three I’s of police selection
Intelligence
Integrity
Interaction skills
Common sense and compassion are nearly as important

13. The Police Recruitment Process
The police officer selection process is very elaborate
Police departments are often guided by civil service regulations that are developed to ensure equal opportunity for all

14. Recruitment
The kind of people many departments need to attract often do not naturally gravitate to police work
The major goal of recruiting is to cast police work as an attractive and sustaining career, even to those who might initially be turned off by it

15. Affirmative Action
Police departments continue to struggle to find the best-qualified applicants while achieving satisfactory race and gender representation within the ranks of the department
Affirmative action programs have been relatively successful in increasing the percentage of racial minorities in policing, but they have been less successful in increasing the percentage of women
Affirmative action programs are now being legally challenged

16. Education, 1
A high school diploma or higher educational achievement was required of new officers by 98% of local police departments in the United States in 2013, the same as in 2007; however, 84% of departments required only a high school diploma
Only 9–10% of the agencies required new officers to have a minimum of 2 years of college
College-educated police officers perform better on the job than officers without the same level of education

17. Education, 2
The advantages of hiring college-educated officers are the following:
Better written reports
Enhanced communication with the public
More effective job performance
Fewer citizen complaints

18. Education, 3 Wiser use of discretion
Heightened sensitivity to racial and ethnic issues
Fewer disciplinary actions

19. Table 7.7: Education Requirements for New Officers in Local Police Departments, by Size of Population Served, 1
Population Served
Total with
Requirement
High School
Diploma
Some
College*
2-Year College
Degree
4-Year College
All sizes
98%
84% 4%
10% 1%
1,000,000 or more
100% 64 7 29
500,000–999,999 70 19 4
250,000–499,999 15 9
100,000–249,999 78 8 10 3
Note: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. *Nondegree requirement. — Less than 0.5%

20. Table 7.7: Education Requirements for New Officers in Local Police Departments, by Size of Population Served, 2
Population Served
Total with
Requirement
High School
Diploma
Some
College*
2-Year College
Degree
4-Year College
50,000–99,999
99% 75 8 12 4
25,000–49,999 18 2
10,000–24,999 81 6 —
2,500–9,999 86 9 1
2,499 or fewer
98% 3
Note: Detail may not sum to total because of rounding. *Nondegree requirement. — Less than 0.5%

21. Successful Recruiting Practices
Going to colleges, neighborhood centers, and schools in minority communities
Using television, radio, and newspaper advertisements
Working with local employment offices
Demystifying the nature of police work and the selection process
Shortening the time from application to final selection

22. Other Promising Recruitment Strategies
The employment of 18-year-olds as public safety officers
Police cadet programs
High school technical preparation programs

23. Public Safety Officers and Police Cadet Programs
Public safety officers: Police department employees who perform many police services but do not have arrest powers
Police cadet program: A program that combines a college education with agency work experience and academy training

24. Technical Preparation
Tech prep: A program in which area community colleges and high schools team up to offer 6 to 9 hours of college law enforcement courses in the eleventh and twelfth grades, as well as one or two training certifications, such as police dispatcher or local corrections officer
Students who graduate are eligible for police employment at age 18

25. The Police Selection Process, 1
In many communities, selection of police officers is through a merit system
Officers employed under such a system are hired and tenured (theoretically) if they meet and maintain the employment qualifications and performance standards
They cannot be fired without cause

26. Merit System
System of employment whereby an independent civil service commission, in cooperation with the city personnel section and the police department, sets employment qualifications, performance standards, and discipline procedures

27. The Police Selection Process, 2
Short application
Detailed application, including work history, references, and medical profile
Medical examination
Physical ability test
Written examination
Background investigation

28. The Police Selection Process, 3
Psychological testing
Oral interview
Academy training
Probation, usually between six months and one year, which includes formal field training

29. The Selection of a Law Enforcement Executive, 1
The selection of a chief executive of a police agency is a crucial decision
The selection process often involves:
Decision by a selection committee
Representatives of the local government, the police department, the search firm, and the community
An executive search firm

30. The Selection of a Law Enforcement Executive, 2
Several visits to the city
Written exams
Interviews
Assessment center testing

31. Issues in Policing
Many areas of policing remain topics of debate, particularly:
Discretion
Job stress
Use of force
Police corruption

32. Discretion, 1
The exercise of individual judgment, instead of formal rules, in making decisions
No list of policies and procedures could possibly guide police officers through all the situations in which they find themselves

33. Discretion, 2 Police routinely must use their own discretion
The issue of police discretion is very controversial, particularly because some officers abuse their discretion

34. Patrol Officer Discretion, 1
Patrol officers routinely use their discretion in deciding:
Where to patrol when not answering radio calls
Whom to stop and question
Which traffic violators to chase
Whether to ignore a minor violation in pursuit of something more serious

35. Patrol Officer Discretion, 2
Patrol officers cannot provide full enforcement; instead, police officers usually practice selective enforcement
Full enforcement: A practice in which the police make an arrest for every violation of law that comes to their attention
Selective enforcement: The practice of relying on the judgment of the police leadership and rank-and-file officers to decide which laws to enforce

36. Factors Affecting Discretion, 1
The nature of the crime
Departmental policies
The relationship between the victim and the offender
The amount of evidence available
The preference of the victim

37. Factors Affecting Discretion, 2
The demeanor of the suspect
The legitimacy of the victim
The socioeconomic status of the complainant

38. Discretion and Domestic Violence, 1
The police do not relish the task of responding to domestic violence for several reasons:
The calls are dangerous
It is a tense and often a hostile experience
The police often conduct an investigation, and the victim later drops the charges
An arrest may further harm the family and exacerbate the family crisis

39. Discretion and Domestic Violence, 2
Today, police are required to intervene if crimes are committed by doing one of the following:
Mediating the dispute
Separating the domestic partners in minor disputes
Arresting the perpetrator
The tactic that is most appropriate to use in a situation is often decided by the officer

40. Discretion and Racial Profiling, 1
Racial profiling is of growing concern to law enforcement officials and to the public
Often, stops are justified by minor equipment or moving traffic violations that might otherwise be ignored
At the root of the practice is racial profiling, which is the stopping and/or detaining of individuals by law enforcement officers based solely on race

41. Discretion and Racial Profiling, 2
Methods aimed at stopping racial profiling include:
Racial and cultural diversity training
Strong discipline for errant officers
Videotaping of all traffic stops
Collecting data on the race of stopped motorists and pedestrians and the disposition of the encounter
Having police officers distribute business cards to all motorists and pedestrians they stop

42. Factors Limiting Discretion
Methods employed to control the amount of discretion exercised by police officers
Close supervision
Policies covering behavior in certain situations, such as the use of force
The threat of civil liability lawsuits

43. Job Stress
Given the nature of police work, no one is surprised to discover that law enforcement officers experience job stress
Job stress is defined as the harmful physical and emotional outcomes that occur when the requirements of a job do not match the worker’s capabilities, resources, or needs

44. Sources and Effects of Stress
Sources of stress
Symptoms of stress
Design of tasks
Management style
Interpersonal relationships
Work roles
Frequent headaches
Difficulty in concentrating
Short temper
Upset stomach
Job dissatisfaction
Abuse of alcohol and drugs
Low morale

45. Copicide
A phenomenon that affects some police officers is copicide, or “death by cop”
Form of suicide in which a person gets fatally shot after intentionally provoking police officers
A study of police shootings in Los Angeles found that 10% of the deaths of citizens could be attributed to copicide
A more recent study of North American officer-involved shootings pegs the incidence of suicide-by-cop at 36%

46. Stress Management and Reduction, 1
Stress can be managed and reduced through:
Discussing stressful events with colleagues and mental health professionals
Regular exercise
Relaxation techniques
A healthy diet, without caffeine or nicotine
Enriched family support

47. Stress Management and Reduction, 2
Religious support, prayer, and meditation
Stress management classes
Organizational changes that give officers more control over their work environment

48. Use of Force
A precise definition of brutality is not possible, but for many people, brutality includes not only excessive physical force but also:
Verbal abuse
Profanity
Harassment
Threats of force
Unnecessary stopping, questioning, and searching of pedestrians

49. Excessive Force, 1
Police use force in order to control suspects who resist arrest and may be armed
The disrespect and physical resistance in these encounters have caused police to sometimes use excessive force, which is a measure of coercion beyond that necessary to control participants in a conflict

50. Excessive Force, 2
The persistent use of excessive force by the police:
Is unethical, civilly wrong, and criminally illegal
Exposes the police to criminal and civil prosecution
Builds up resentment by citizens against police
Costs law enforcement agencies millions of dollars in legal damages

51. Deadly Force, 1
In 1985, the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Tennessee v. Garner restricted the conditions under which police can use deadly force

52. Deadly Force, 2 The use of deadly force is not justifiable unless the:
Arrest is for a felony
Person effecting the arrest is authorized to act as a peace officer or is assisting a person whom he/she believes to be authorized to act as a peace officer
Actor believes that the force employed creates no substantial risk of injury to innocent persons

53. Deadly Force, 3 The actor believes that:
The crime for which the arrest is made involved conduct including the use or threatened use of deadly force
There is substantial risk that the person to be arrested will cause death or serious bodily harm if his/her apprehension is delayed

54. Deadly Force, 4
No state laws require that deadly force be used only as a last resort with nonviolent and less harmful means to be tried first, and no states limit the use of deadly force to only situations where there is imminent threat to life or serious injury to the officer or others
Data on violent deaths recorded by the Center for Disease Control show that 27.6% of the people killed by the police (6,338) between and 2013 were black, even though blacks at the time comprised only 13.2% of the population

55. Police Corruption, 1
Nothing is more distasteful to the public than a police officer or a whole department gone bad
Throughout history, police officers have bought their positions and promotions, sold protection, and ignored violations of the law for money

56. Police Corruption, 2 Why is policing so susceptible to corruption?
Police have authority to enforce laws and to use power to make sure that those laws are obeyed
Police also have the discretion to not enforce the law
Police receive relatively low pay but have important responsibilities
Police become cynical about the courts’ soft treatment of criminals
Society in general is ambivalent about vice

57. Types of Corruption, 1
The Knapp Commission in 1972 identified two kinds of corrupt officers
Grass eaters: Officers who occasionally engage in illegal and unethical activities, such as accepting small favors, gifts, or money for ignoring violations of the law during the course of their duties
Meat eaters: Officers who actively seek ways to make money illegally while on duty

58. Types of Corruption, 2
Ellwyn Stoddard identified a more complete list of police misconduct:
Bribery: Accepting cash or gifts in exchange for nonenforcement of the law
Chiseling: Demanding discounts, free admission, and free food
Extortion: The threat of enforcement and arrest if a bribe is not given
Favoritism: Giving breaks on law enforcement to family and friends
Mooching: Accepting free food, drinks, and admission to entertainment
Perjury: Lying for other officers apprehended in illegal activity

59. Types of Corruption, 3
Prejudice: Unequal enforcement of the law with respect to racial and ethnic minorities
Premeditated theft: Planned burglaries and theft
Shakedown: Taking items from the scene of a theft or a burglary
Shopping: Taking small, inexpensive items from a crime scene

60. Controlling Corruption
Some of the ways to control and reduce corruption in policing are:
High moral standards
Police policies and discipline
Proactive internal affairs investigations unit
Uniform enforcement of the law
Outside review and special prosecutor
Court review and oversight

61. Internal Affairs Investigations Unit
The internal affairs investigations unit is the police unit that ferrets out illegal and unethical activity engaged in by the police

62. Professionalizing Law Enforcement, 1
Many people would argue that policing in America has already reached professional status
Professional accreditation for police agencies is a rite of passage that is needed if law enforcement is to join the list of the most respected professions

63. Professionalizing Law Enforcement, 2
Professionals in any field make mistakes
A caring public should forgive most of them
However, racist and brutal tactics like the Los Angeles police officers’ beating of Rodney King should not be tolerated

64. Professionalizing Law Enforcement, 3
Police officers need to treat their on-duty time as a professional performance in order to improve the public’s perception of law enforcement as a profession worthy of trust and admiration

65. Appendix

66. Figure 7.1: Americans’ Ratings of Honesty and Ethics of Police - Appendix, 1
In 1977, the rating was 37. In 1981, the rating was 44. In 1983, the rating was 41. In 1985, the rating was 47. Between 1989 and 1991, the rating was 49. Between 1991 and 1993, the rating was 42.
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67. Figure 7.1: Americans’ Ratings of Honesty and Ethics of Police - Appendix, 2
In 1993, the rating was 50. In 1995, the rating was 41. Between 1997 and 1999, the rating was 49. Between 1999 and 2001, the rating was 55. In 2001, the rating was 68. In 2005, the rating was 61.
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68. Figure 7.1: Americans’ Ratings of Honesty and Ethics of Police - Appendix, 3
In 2007, the rating was 53. In 2009, the rating was 63. Between 2011 and 2013, the rating was 58 and then 54. Between 2013 and 2015, the rating was 48. In 2015, the rating was 56.
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