1. Preference Utilitarianism
Main Scholars-
Peter Singer
R.M. Hare- (1919–2002)
Henry Sidgwick- ( )

2. Preference Utilitarianism
Preference is easier to judge than happiness.
A runner may prefer to keep running through his agony to finish the race or a prisoner may rather face death than betray his friends.
Neither achieves happiness (in the crude hedonic sense) but acts on a preference that is more important than happiness.
Horner & Westacott-
“Imagine the case of Joan of Arc. It seems unlikely that her campaign to rid France of the English was motivated entirely or even mainly by the search for pleasure. It is hardly credible that she was experiencing pleasure as she stood at the stake and the flames began to burn around her body…It seems more plausible that she …was experiencing pain for the sake of something she valued more highly than pleasure.”

3. Preference Utilitarianism
A further advantage-
It does not require experience to make a judgement. You can know that you would prefer not to be tortured without ever having experienced it.
A preference could be a duty- the preference of the prisoner to suffer rather than betray his friends. (link with deontology)

4. Immanuel Kant
Kant argued, that utilitarianism relied too heavily on subjective considerations. He presented a deontological moral system, based on the demands of the categorical imperative, as an alternative.
If something is right it is always right and if it is wrong it is always wrong.
He said that we act in accordance with the categorical imperative- We do things because they are inherently moral and not because of the consequences. Eg. It is wrong to tell lies (it is wrong by definition and not because of the consequences).

5. R.M Hare
Hare tried to solve the problem of happiness being subjective by offering his version of preference utilitarianism.
R. M. Hare argued that it is important to take into account the preferences of the individuals involved, except where those preferences come into direct conflict with the preferences of others.
The right thing to do, therefore, is to maximise the chances that everyone’s preferences will be satisfied.

6. R.M Hare
R. M. Hare claims that people are capable of two types of moral deliberation which he termed:
Archangel
Prole (a proletarian)
The archangel is a character that can think critically using the act utilitarian principles to make rational decisions.
The prole is a rule utilitarian he thinks intuitively and acts according to the rules

7. R.M Hare
In real life we are capable of being prole and archangel. Which we use and when depends upon circumstances and our individual abilities.

8. Peter Singer
Instead of greatest happiness, or greatest pleasure, for the greatest number, Singer advocates serving the “best interests” of the greatest number.
We should seek to satisfy as many preferences in the world as we can, animal and human.
Instead of saying make everyone happy (which is subjective) it says essentially give everyone what they want where possible.
What does this mean for euthanasia?
How would Singer treat animals?
“An action contrary to the preference of any being is, unless this preference is outweighed by contrary preferences, wrong.” Singer

9. Henry Sidgwick- Motive Utilitarianism
Sidgwick put forward a theory which led to what became “Motive Utilitarianism”
He said an action can be considered to be good if its motive was to bring about the maximum good for the maximum number , regardless of the actual outcome. (link to situation ethics).

10. Prima Facie Obligations
Prima Facie- a Latin expression meaning on its first appearance, or at first sight. The literal translation would be "at first face“
This is the idea that we do not value strangers as highly as friends and family.
Most of us judge morality as “agent relative,” we will favour some people above others.
Utilitarianism requires us to judge all people equally and not consider Prima Facie relationships.
This is a criticism of Utilitarianism as to abandon prima facie duties seems to go against all instinct.
Some people argue that people should be treated as ends in themselves and not the means to an end.
It is necessary for a utilitarian to defend against this position.

11. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
Butler- “We are not competent judges, whether a particular action will upon the whole do good or harm.”
Henry Sidgwick- “It is meaningless to talk of higher and lower pleasures.” How can you compare Bach to Shakespeare? Where would sport fit in?
John Rawls- utilitarianism disregards the rights of the individual in its attempts to address the greater good.

12. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
Dostoyevsky- If you could make all humanity eternally happy but it required you to torture a baby to death would you do it?
D.D. Raphael- said that this would satisfy the principle of utility but it is clearly wrong and so the principle of utility is wrong.
Human rights- The principle of utility does not allow human rights.
Deontology- Kant- Utilitarianism ignores the importance of duty.

13. Criticisms of Utilitarianism
G.E.Moore- Mill based his idea of happiness on desire. Since desires can be bad, we cannot base our morality on this principle.
Bernard Williams- Considered that our identity was bound up in our morality. We all know what we personally consider to be right and so we should do this. (relativism, link to Prima Facie) Utilitarianism removes part of our identity.

14. Summary RM Hare- the “right action” meets the most preferences.
Peter Singer- replaces “happiness” or “pleasure” with “best interest.” Give as many beings what they want as possible.
Henry Sidgwick- Motive Utilitarianism- Do what you think will “maximise good.”
Immanual Kant- Utilitarianism is too subjective- put forward deontology and categorical imperative.
Prima Facie Duties
Bernard Williams
G.E.Moore
Dostoyevsky
D.D. Raphael-
Human rights-
Deontology- Kant-
John Rawls-
Henry Sidgwick-
Butler-