1. Observations in Psychology
Please work through this power point as a slide show. Use your text book to supplement your understanding of this method.

2. Learning Aims To learn about different types of observation
To know the difference between
time sampling and event sampling
To have worked out the strengths and weaknesses of each
These are the learning outcomes from the specification

3. Observations
The starting point for any scientific enquiry is observation. People started observing the world around them thousands of years ago – the sun rose on one side of the landscape and set on the other and this happened at regular and predictable intervals. They observed, they recorded and they made the best sense out of what they saw as possible. Although some of their conclusions were nonsense the observations themselves were sound.
The romans thought the gods charioted through the sky bringing the sun and then the moon 

4. Observation is often used to provide information which can then be used as a basis for further study, usually by using other methods. Observation is the starting point for most research

5. Psychologists also observe and record behaviour, looking for patterns that they try to make sense of.
The first task is to make good observations to devise ways of categorising and recording what is seen.
The tricky bit is to make sense of these observations.

6. When psychologists observe the actual behaviour of people in various kinds of situations they try to describe the behaviour as objectively and accurately as possible. Of course this is easier said than done, but an attempt is made to reduce bias, to make sure that all the observers are watching the same behaviour and measuring it in the same way.
Objective means fact not opinion.
Subjective means personal opinion.

7. To use a systematic system for categorising and recording information
In order to do this it is necessary for all observers involved in the same research to have a clear idea of exactly what they are observing
To use a systematic system for categorising and recording information
Why is it a good idea to use more than one observer?
One than one observer helps to eliminate bias – this will make the observation more objective. It is known as inter-observer (or inter-rater reliability)

8. Assessing Reliability
Reliability can be checked by comparing the recordings of two (or more) observers and calculating agreement. (this is known as the concordance rate measured as a correlation coefficient)
A general rule is that that if total agreements are more than 80% of total observations made then the data has high inter-rater reliability 
Also called inter-observer reliability

9. Inter-rater reliability
So to summarise ….
Is VERY important
Consistency between different researchers working on the same study is very important for reliability
In observational studies this is known as inter-observer reliability – observers have to agree on what they see and carry out the same procedure
There should be a high positive correlation between the scores of different observers

10. One type of observation is known as naturalistic observation in which psychologists try to remain as inconspicuous as possible so they do not influence the behaviour they are observing. This type of observation is said to have high ecological validity. Ecological validity is the extent to which the behaviour being observed reflects behaviour in ordinary real life situations.
Covert means undercover
People don’t know they are being observed!

11. An alternative is participant observation in which observers take an active part in a social situation, like participating in an encounter group to study their own as well as other people’s behaviour.
Rosenhan and the pseudo patients pretended to be ‘insane’ to observe how real patients were treated in psychiatric hospitals
Bruce Parry lived with various Amazonian tribes to observe them and learn more about them

12. Participant observation
Means observations are carried out by a person who is in the group being observed
This can be disclosed (overt) or undisclosed (covert)
strengths:
behaviour from participants is natural (if undisclosed) = high ecological validity
understanding of reasons behind behaviour better
weaknesses:
experimenter bias and it’s also likely that the researcher will influence the action taking place.
difficulty in replicating
Could be unethical
And it’s difficult to take notes when you’re joining in!
Rosenhan is an example of this type of observation

13. Participant Observation
In the 1950s a social psychologist called Leon Festinger read a new report about a religious cult that claimed to be receiving messages from outer space predicting that the world will end on a certain date in a great flood. The cult members were going to be rescued by a flying saucer. Festinger wanted to know how the cult members would respond when their beliefs became unfounded. So he posed as a cult follower and went to the place on the eve of the destruction. When there was no flood the group became disheartened but the leader announced the aliens had been in contact to say the groups efforts had saved the day. Some members left the cult after this but others became even more enthusiastic supporters!

14. Structured observation
Are observations with a clearly defined system for recording behaviour
strengths
Better control over observer bias
Easier to test inter-rater (observer) reliability (high level of agreement between observers)
weaknesses
It limits the data that can be collected
It may fail to acknowledge some behaviours that are not on the check list
This is typical of Bandura’s research. The control is the key strength, but this may lead to some artificiality and some limitation on behaviour that may not have been considered when the research was set up.
This is what we mean by a observation check list

15. Naturalistic observation is when the
researcher stays out of the observation and doesn’t interfere.
There are 4 types:
Structured observation
Unstructured observation
Covert observation (under cover –people are unaware)
Overt observation (people are aware)

16. Would you see this as bullying or horseplay in the playground?
You would see this from your own subjective viewpoint – we’re biased by experience and expectation
Observers must agree about what they are observing – they need to use standardised behavioural categories

17. Structured Observation
The researcher decides in advance what types of behaviour they’re looking for.
They come up with an observation checklist to complete during the observation.
They tally the number of times a particular behaviour occurs.
This produces quantitative data
A coding system is also worked out sometimes.
Event sampling and time sampling can take place in this type of observation

18. Covert Observations ARE UNDER COVER (secret)
Participants are unaware that they are being observed which reduces what?
Participants act naturally.
But this is more unethical
Care must be taken not to invade people’s privacy. As a rule it is OK to conduct covert observations in public places.
In psychological research, you’re not allowed to record observations using audio or video equipment without participant’s consent.

19. Where could you do a covert observation and where couldn’t you?
Ethics!!
Where could you do a covert observation and where couldn’t you?
Think about it !

20. Overt Observations
Is when people are aware they’re being observed. E.g. teachers and students during a lesson observation.
What are the problems with this?

21. Observation Techniques
Time sampling
This is where behaviour is sampled for short periods of time.
e.g. three hourly observations between , and , or every 5 minutes for a certain period (e.g. 1 hour).
strengths:
reduces the amount of time spent and may increase accuracy
weaknesses:
behaviour may be missed if time samples are limited
Would you spot the dancing Panda ?
This is one way in which the data is collected. Students need to know this for their own research, either as the way they do collect the data or as an alternative.

22. Event sampling
Observation Techniques
Involves observing a particular behaviour and recording that behaviour every time it occurs.
strengths:
less chance of behaviour of interest being missed
weaknesses:
limits the behaviour observed
This is the most likely way that students will collect data for their own activity. However, they need to know alternatives as well as to be able to evaluate the methods.

23. Advantages of the observation method
1. Some observers feel that behaviour will only occur in its true form in free, natural situations. The observation method therefore has high ecological validity.
2. It is possible to collect information about situations where it is either unethical or impractical to perform experiments; for example, it is impractical to carry out an experiment on the effects on children of transferring from a primary to a secondary school, but it is well worth observing these effects.

24. Disadvantages
Observers may be biased and record their own interpretations of what they are observing. If observers use predetermined schedules of observations they may feel that they should fit all behaviour into one or another category, even though there may not be a suitable category for it on the schedule.
2. If people are aware they are being watched, they may not behave as they normally would.
3. It is difficult to control extraneous variables

25. Use your text book or the tutor2U attachment glossary to help you
There are lots of specific terms associated with the observation method.
I suggest to go back through the powerpoint and create a glossary of key terms.
Use your text book or the tutor2U attachment glossary to help you
We will be using your understanding of the observation method in your next few lessons.
Once you have worked through the power point you are ready to complete task 1 –see next slide

26. The observation Technique
When we carry out an observation we can either do a structured observation or an unstructured observation.
Carrying out an unstructured observation
Some psychologists say that children learn best through having behaviour modelled to them, through direct support and reinforcement and through parents giving prompts and tips while the child is carrying out a task.
Task
Watch the video and make observations on:
The child’s behaviour
The reinforcement given
The prompts that are provided
Any other interesting features you notice
See work sheet on the blog