1. 6 Congress Scott J. Ferrell/ Congressional Quarterly/Getty Images
As you will learn in this chapter, Congress has both changed and stayed the same. In terms of its formal structure and procedures, it has varied little over the years. But in terms of its interpersonal dynamics and policy issues, it has changed significantly.
Scott J. Ferrell/ Congressional Quarterly/Getty Images

2. Roots & Requirememnts of the U.S. Congress
6.1
Roots & Requirememnts of the U.S. Congress
Bicameral legislature
House (Art 1 sec 2)
Representatives based on population conducted by census every 10 years (Art 1, sec 2, clause 3).
Two-year term
Members must be 25 & citizen for at least 7 years
Senate (Art 1 sec 3)
Two from each state
Six-year term
Members must be 30 & citizens for at least 9 years
Article I of the Constitution describes the structure of the legislative branch of government: an upper house (the Senate) and a lower house (the House of Representatives). Together, they form our bicameral legislature. In Congress, the number of members each state sends to the House of Representatives is determined by the population of the state. In contrast, each state has two members in the Senate, regardless of population. Let's explore the structure and rules for Congress in this first section.

3. 6.1 TABLE 6.1 What are the powers of Congress?
This table includes the powers of Congress, as spelled out in Article I, section 8.

4. Key Powers (Art 1 sec 8) 6.1 Make laws Raise and spend revenue
Both House and Senate must pass bills.
Raise and spend revenue
Raise an Army
Promote the progress of science
Build post offices and postal roads
Other powers "as necessary and proper" to carry out the functions of Congress
The Constitution specifically gives Congress its most important powers: the authority to make laws and raise and spend revenue. But the two houses must agree: No bill, or proposed law, can become law without the consent of both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
The Constitution further gives Congress the authority to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers." In the past, this "necessary and proper" clause has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to mean that Congress can use this power, along with its other powers, to increase the scope of its authority, often at the expense of the states and not always in ways the Framers may have intended.
The House has the power of impeachment to charge the president, the vice president, or other "civil officers" with "Treason, Bribery, or other High Crimes and Misdemeanors." However, only the Senate can conduct impeachment trials, and two thirds of the Senate must agree before a federal official can be removed from office.

5. TABLE 6.2 What are the key differences between the House of Representatives and the Senate?
6.1
As you can see, this chart notes some of the key differences between the House of Representatives and the Senate. One of the big differences is the number of members each body has: The House has 435 members and the Senate, 100.
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6. TABLE 6.2 What are the key differences between the House of Representatives and the Senate?
6.1
As you can see, this chart notes some of the key differences between the House of Representatives and the Senate. One of the big differences is the number of members each body has: The House has 435 members and the Senate, 100.

7. Congressional Demographics
6.2
Congressional Demographics
Put simply, Congress is better educated, more male and whiter than the general population. More than two-thirds hold advanced degrees. Almost 250 members of Congress are millionaires, a fact which has led to the Senate at times being called “the Millionaires Club." Many members have significant inherited wealth; in 2010, representatives had a median net worth of $75,000 and senators had a median net worth of $1.7 million.
Most members of Congress may qualify for AARP benefits: The average age of House members is 57, while the average age of Senators is 63.
An influx of women, African Americans, and other minorities were elected in Some of those gains have held: the 112th Congress included 42 African Americans, all in the House, and 27 Hispanics. It also included seven members of Asian or Pacific Island American descent and four openly gay members. Some groups have lost ground, however: the number of women has declined slightly in the 112th Congress, as has the number of Jewish members of Congress.
Better educated than general population
Two-thirds of members hold advanced degrees
Wealthier than general population
Senate "Millionaires Club"
Recent increases in minority representation

8. Redistricting & Apportionment
6.2
Redistricting & Apportionment
Congressional districts are redrawn to reflect increases or decreases in seats allotted to states, as well as population shifts within a state. Redistricting can be a largely political process. In most states, the state legislature redraws the lines. The new districts could be drawn to help incumbents win reelection or to make it harder for incumbents if they are not a member of the party in power.
When the practice of redistricting is so influenced by politics that it produces a district with a strange shape, it is called gerrymandering. Such cases are often challenged in court. In recent years the Supreme Court has ruled that when redistricting the districts must be based on population and they must be contiguous (the boundaries must be able to be drawn with a single line). It has ruled that gerrymandering to dilute minority strength violates the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and that race can be considered when redistricting if it is not the "predominate" factor, and states may redistrict more frequently than every 10 years.
Apportionment - When states gain or lose members in the U.S. House following the census
Redistricting - When State Legislatures redraw Federal districts following
Often political in nature
Party in power in state legislatures controls the process
Gerrymandering
Drawing a district to favor a party or candidate
Unconstitutional in the State of Florida

9. 6.3
FIGURE House of Representatives and the Senate w/ Leadership Teams
This figure shows the organizational structure of the House and Senate. While there are a number of similarities, there are also key differences.

10. The Committee System 6.3 Types of committees
Standing committees – are those to which bills are referred for consideration. Continue from one Congress to the next
Joint committees – Standing committee that includes members from both houses
Conference committees – special joint committees created to reconcile differences in House & Senate version of a bill
Select (or special) committees – temporary committees appointed for specific purposes
Committee chairs – authorized to select all subcommittee chairs, call meetings, can kill bills through scheduling, have large staffs & receive favors from lobbyists
Much of the work that Congress does is handled in committee. Standing committees are the first and last place to which most bills go for consideration. They are called standing committees because they continue from one Congress to the next.
Joint committees are standing committees that include members from both the House and the Senate. They conduct investigations, special studies, and focus on major issues such as the economy or a specific scandal.
Conference committees are special joint committees that work out the differences in bills passed by the House and the Senate. Both chambers have to pass the exact same bill before it can become law.
Select (or Special) committees are temporary committees set up for a specific purpose, such as to investigate the September 11, terrorist attacks.
Historically, committee chairs are long-serving members of the majority party, though that is not always the case. Committee chairs have a great deal of influence. They decide when to hold meetings, and can kill a bill simply by refusing to schedule it for a hearing.
Members of both chambers may request membership on a particular committee based on their personal interests and expertise. In both the House and the Senate, committee membership generally reflects party distribution within that chamber.

11. 6.3 TABLE 6.5 What were the committees of the 113th Congress?
Look closely to see the committees and subcommittees of the 112th Congress.

12. 6.3 TABLE 6.5 What were the committees of the 113th Congress?
Look closely to see the committees and subcommittees of the 112th Congress.

13. 6.4 FIGURE 6.4 How does a bill become a law?
A bill must go through a carefully prescribed process in both the House and the Senate before it can become a law. Why do you think that so many bills never make it through this process to become law?

14. 3 Functions of Congress 6.4 Law-making, Budgetary & Oversight
First Monday in February (process begins) – October 1st (fiscal year begins)
Congressional Budget Act (1974) Establishes levels of spending & limits debate
Oversight
Congressional review – allows Congress to overrule regulations for federal agencies
Confirmation of presidential appointees
Impeachment
After a bill has been introduced, it goes to the appropriate committees for consideration. Committee staff members may research different aspects of the bill and the committee chair decides whether to allow the bill to have a hearing before the committee. If the subcommittee approves the bill, it goes to the full committee, where it may undergo some changes before it is presented to the floor for a debate.
The House can form a committee of 100 members who will debate and amend the bill to streamline the process so that all House members do not have to speak. If the bill survives this process and is passed by the House, it goes to the Senate for consideration.
The Senate may hold up a bill by a hold or a filibuster. A hold allows for additional reviewing, negotiating changes, or even an attempt to kill a bill. A filibuster, however, is a deliberate attempt to halt legislation by using long speeches or unlimited debate.
The final stage of Congress’s law-making powers comes when the two chambers pass different versions of the same bill. When this happens, a conference committee works out the differences in the two bills. The bill is then returned to both chambers for a final vote.
If the bill passes, it is sent to the president, who has 10 days to consider it. The president can: sign the bill, at which point it becomes law; he can veto the bill; he can do nothing, at which point it becomes law without his signature at the end of the 10 days; or, if Congress is scheduled to adjourn within the 10 days the president can do nothing. This effectively kills the bill in a process known as a "pocket veto."

15. How Members of Congress Make Decisions
6.5
How Members of Congress Make Decisions
When voting on policy issues, members of Congress must decide how to best represent their constituents. Representatives or senators who listen to the concerns of their constituents but use their best judgment are voting as trustees. When they vote the way their constituents want, they are voting as delegates. A politico at times votes as a trustee and at others votes as a delegate.
Much thought goes into making policy and program decisions. Representatives and senators generally consult many people from different groups, interests, and backgrounds. These include political parties; constituents; colleagues and caucuses; interest groups, lobbyists and political action committees; and staff and support agencies.
Political Parties
Constituents
Colleagues and Caucuses
Logrolling – supporting another members legislation in exchange for future support
Interest Groups, Lobbyists, and Political Action Committees
Staff and Support Agencies

16. Interest Groups, Lobbyists and Political Action Committees
6.5
Interest Groups, Lobbyists and Political Action Committees
A primary function of lobbyists is to provide information that helps convince lawmakers to vote in the interests of the lobbyist's clients. Such information can include research, data and other facts. Organized groups can persuade undecided members to vote their way or cement the votes of their allies by providing lawmakers with reasons to justify their decisions back home. In return, such lawmakers can often count on these interest groups and political action committees when it comes time to raise money for reelection.
Research and Data
Provide information to justify members' positions on legislation
Persuade constituents to contact or pressure members
Fundraising
PACS

17. 6.6 FIGURE 6.5 What do Americans think about Congress?
This graph shows the American public’s views on Congress as an institution and individual members. Poll respondents were asked, “Do you approve or disapprove of the way Congress is handling its job?” and “Do you approve or disapprove of the way the representative from your district is handling his or her job?”
SOURCE: The Roper Center for Public Opinion, Gallup, and ABC News/Washington Post Poll,