Chapter Opener 12 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc..

Figure 12.1 Embryonic development of the human brain.
Neural tube (contains neural canal) Primary brain vesicles Secondary brain vesicles Adult brain structures Adult neural canal regions Cerebrum: cerebral hemispheres (cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Lateral ventricles Telencephalon Anterior (rostral) Prosencephalon (forebrain) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), retina Third ventricle Diencephalon Mesencephalon (midbrain) Mesencephalon Brain stem: midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) Metencephalon Brain stem: pons Cerebellum Fourth ventricle Myelencephalon Brain stem: medulla oblongata Posterior (caudal) Spinal cord Central canal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.1a Embryonic development of the human brain.
Neural tube (contains neural canal) Anterior (rostral) Posterior (caudal) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.1b Embryonic development of the human brain.
Primary brain vesicles Prosencephalon (forebrain) Mesencephalon (midbrain) Rhombencephalon (hindbrain) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.1c Embryonic development of the human brain.
Secondary brain vesicles Telencephalon Diencephalon Mesencephalon Metencephalon Myelencephalon © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.1d Embryonic development of the human brain.
Adult brain structures Cerebrum: cerebral hemispheres (cortex, white matter, basal nuclei) Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus), retina Brain stem: midbrain Brain stem: pons Cerebellum Brain stem: medulla oblongata Spinal cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.1e Embryonic development of the human brain.
Adult neural canal regions Lateral ventricles Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Central canal © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.2 Brain development.
Anterior (rostral) Posterior (caudal) Metencephalon Mesencephalon Midbrain Diencephalon Flexures Cervical Telencephalon Myelencephalon Spinal cord Week 5: Two major flexures form, causing the telencephalon and diencephalon to angle toward the brain stem. Cerebral hemisphere Outline of diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Week 13: Cerebral hemispheres develop and grow posterolaterally to enclose the diencephalon and the rostral brain stem. Cerebral hemisphere Diencephalon Cerebellum Brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Birth: Shows adult pattern of structures and convolutions. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.2a Brain development.
Anterior (rostral) Posterior (caudal) Metencephalon Mesencephalon Midbrain Diencephalon Flexures Cervical Telencephalon Spinal cord Myelencephalon Week 5: Two major flexures form, causing the telencephalon and diencephalon to angle toward the brain stem. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.2b Brain development.
Cerebral hemisphere Outline of diencephalon Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Spinal cord Week 13: Cerebral hemispheres develop and grow posterolaterally to enclose the diencephalon and the rostral brain stem. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.2c Brain development.
Cerebral hemisphere Diencephalon Cerebellum Brain stem Midbrain Pons Medulla oblongata Birth: Shows adult pattern of structures and convolutions. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.3 Ventricles of the brain.
Lateral ventricle Anterior horn Posterior horn Septum pellucidum Interventricular foramen Inferior horn Third ventricle Inferior horn Lateral aperture Cerebral aqueduct Median aperture Fourth ventricle Lateral aperture Central canal Anterior view Left lateral view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.3a Ventricles of the brain.
Lateral ventricle Anterior horn Septum pellucidum Interventricular foramen Inferior horn Third ventricle Lateral aperture Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Central canal Anterior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.3b Ventricles of the brain.
Lateral ventricle Anterior horn Posterior horn Interventricular foramen Third ventricle Inferior horn Cerebral aqueduct Median aperture Fourth ventricle Lateral aperture Central canal Left lateral view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.4 Lobes, sulci, and fissures of the cerebral hemispheres.
Anterior Longitudinal fissure Frontal lobe Left cerebral hemisphere Cerebral veins and arteries covered by arachnoid mater Parietal lobe Left cerebral hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere Transverse cerebral fissure Occipital lobe Brain stem Posterior Cerebellum Superior view Left lateral view Central sulcus Central sulcus Precentral gyrus Postcentral gyrus Frontal lobe Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Parieto-occipital sulcus (on medial surface of hemisphere) Lateral sulcus Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Transverse Cerebral fissure Gyri of insula Cerebellum Pons Temporal lobe (pulled down) Medulla oblongata Fissure (a deep sulcus) Spinal cord Location of the insula lobe Gyrus Cortex (gray matter) Sulcus White matter Lobes and sulci of the cerebrum © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.4a Lobes, sulci, and fissures of the cerebral hemispheres.
Anterior Longitudinal fissure Frontal lobe Cerebral veins and arteries covered by arachnoid mater Parietal lobe Left cerebral hemisphere Right cerebral hemisphere Occipital lobe Posterior Superior view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.4b Lobes, sulci, and fissures of the cerebral hemispheres.
Left cerebral hemisphere Transverse cerebral fissure Brain stem Cerebellum Left lateral view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.4c Lobes, sulci, and fissures of the cerebral hemispheres.
Central sulcus Precentral gyrus Postcentral gyrus Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Parieto-occipital sulcus (on medial surface of hemisphere) Lateral sulcus Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Transverse cerebral fissure Cerebellum Pons Medulla oblongata Fissure (a deep sulcus) Spinal cord Gyrus Cortex (gray matter) Sulcus White matter Lobes and sulci of the cerebrum © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.4d Lobes, sulci, and fissures of the cerebral hemispheres.
Central sulcus Frontal lobe Gyri of insula Temporal lobe (pulled down) Location of the insula lobe © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.5 Functional neuroimaging (fMRI) of the cerebral cortex.
Central sulcus Longitudinal fissure Left frontal lobe Left temporal lobe Areas active in speech and hearing (fMRI) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.6 Functional and structural areas of the cerebral cortex.
Motor areas Central sulcus Sensory areas and related association areas Primary motor cortex Primary somatosensory cortex Premotor cortex Somatic sensation Frontal eye field Somatosensory association cortex Broca's area (outlined by dashes) Gustatory cortex (in insula) Taste Prefrontal cortex Working memory for spatial tasks Wernicke's area (outlined by dashes) Executive area for task management Working memory for object-recall tasks Primary visual cortex Visual association area Vision Solving complex, multitask problems Auditory association area Hearing Primary auditory cortex Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere Premotor cortex Cingulate gyrus Primary motor cortex Central sulcus Corpus callosum Primary somatosensory cortex Frontal eye field Parietal lobe Prefrontal cortex Somatosensory association cortex Parieto-occipital sulcus Occipital lobe Processes emotions related to personal and social interactions Visual association area Orbitofrontal cortex Olfactory bulb Primary visual cortex Olfactory tract Calcarine sulcus Fornix Temporal lobe Primary olfactory cortex Uncus Parahippocampal gyrus Parasagittal view, right cerebral hemisphere Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.6a Functional and structural areas of the cerebral cortex.
Motor areas Central sulcus Sensory areas and related association areas Primary motor cortex Primary somatosensory cortex Premotor cortex Somatic sensation Frontal eye field Somatosensory association cortex Broca's area (outlined by dashes) Gustatory cortex (in insula) Taste Prefrontal cortex Working memory for spatial tasks Wernicke's area (outlined by dashes) Executive area for task management Working memory for object-recall tasks Primary visual cortex Vision Solving complex, multitask problems Visual association area Auditory association area Hearing Primary auditory cortex Lateral view, left cerebral hemisphere Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.6b Functional and structural areas of the cerebral cortex.
Premotor cortex Cingulate gyrus Primary motor cortex Central sulcus Corpus callosum Primary somatosensory cortex Frontal eye field Parietal lobe Somatosensory association cortex Prefrontal cortex Parieto-occipital sulcus Occipital lobe Processes emotions related to personal and social interactions Visual association area Orbitofrontal cortex Olfactory bulb Primary visual cortex Olfactory tract Calcarine sulcus Fornix Temporal lobe Primary olfactory cortex Uncus Parahippocampal gyrus Parasagittal view, right cerebral hemisphere Primary motor cortex Motor association cortex Primary sensory cortex Sensory association cortex Multimodal association cortex © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.7 Body maps in the primary motor cortex and somatosensory cortex of the cerebrum.
Posterior Motor Sensory Anterior Motor map in precentral gyrus Sensory map in postcentral gyrus Shoulder Head Trunk Neck Trunk Leg Hip Arm Forearm Hand Wrist Elbow Arm Hip Knee Elbow Hand Fingers Fingers Knee Thumb Thumb Foot Eye Neck Brow Nose Eye Toes Face Genitals Lips Face Lips Teeth Gums Jaw Jaw Tongue Pharynx Tongue Primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus) Primary somatosensory cortex (postcentral gyrus) Intra- abdominal Swallowing © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.8 White fiber tracts of the cerebral hemispheres.
Association fibers (within hemisphere) Longitudinal fissure Superior Commissural fibers (between hemispheres) Lateral ventricle • Corpus callosum Basal nuclei • Caudate • Putamen • Globus pallidus Projection fibers (cerebral cortex to lower area) • Corona radiata • Internal capsule Thalamus Gray matter Third ventricle White matter Pons Decussation (cross-over) of pyramids Medulla oblongata Frontal section Association fibers Gray matter Commissural fibers • Corpus callosum Projection fibers • Corona radiata • Internal capsule Parasagittal section and dissection © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.8a White fiber tracts of the cerebral hemispheres.
Association fibers (within hemisphere) Longitudinal fissure Superior Commissural fibers (between hemispheres) Lateral ventricle • Corpus callosum Basal nuclei • Caudate • Putamen • Globus pallidus Projection fibers (cerebral cortex to lower area) • Corona radiata • Internal capsule Thalamus Gray matter Third ventricle White matter Pons Decussation (cross-over) of pyramids Medulla oblongata Frontal section © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.8a White fiber tracts of the cerebral hemispheres. (1 of 2)
Association fibers (within hemisphere) Longitudinal fissure Superior Commissural fibers (between hemispheres) Lateral ventricle • Corpus callosum Projection fibers (cerebral cortex to lower area) Basal nuclei • Caudate • Putamen • Globus pallidus • Corona radiata • Internal capsule Thalamus Gray matter Third ventricle White matter Pons Decussation (cross-over) of pyramids Medulla oblongata Frontal section © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.8a White fiber tracts of the cerebral hemispheres. (2 of 2)
Association fibers (within hemisphere) Commissural fibers (between hemispheres) • Corpus callosum Projection fibers (cerebral cortex to lower area) • Corona radiata • Internal capsule Gray matter White matter Frontal section © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.8b White fiber tracts of the cerebral hemispheres.
Association fibers Gray matter Commissural fibers • Corpus callosum Projection fibers • Corona radiata • Internal capsule Parasagittal section and dissection © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.9 Basal nuclei. Caudate nucleus Striatum Thalamus Putamen
Tail of caudate nucleus Anterior Cerebral cortex Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Head of caudate nucleus Putamen Globus pallidus Thalamus Tail of caudate nucleus Third ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle Posterior © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Caudate nucleus Striatum Thalamus Putamen Tail of caudate nucleus
Figure 12.9a Basal nuclei. Caudate nucleus Striatum Thalamus Putamen Tail of caudate nucleus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Head of caudate nucleus
Figure 12.9b Basal nuclei. Anterior Cerebral cortex Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Head of caudate nucleus Putamen Globus pallidus Thalamus Tail of caudate nucleus Third ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle Posterior © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.9b Basal nuclei. (1 of 2)
Anterior Cerebral cortex Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Head of caudate nucleus Putamen Globus pallidus Thalamus Tail of caudate nucleus Third ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle Posterior © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.9b Basal nuclei. (2 of 2)
Cerebral cortex Cerebral white matter Corpus callosum Anterior horn of lateral ventricle Head of caudate nucleus Putamen Globus pallidus Thalamus Third ventricle Inferior horn of lateral ventricle © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.10 Midsagittal section of the brain.
Cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Septum pellucidum Fornix Interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass of thalamus) Choroid plexus Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Posterior commissure Interventricular foramen Epithalamus Pineal gland Anterior commissure Corpora quadrigemina Hypothalamus Midbrain Optic chiasma Cerebral aqueduct Pituitary gland Mammillary body Arbor vitae (of cerebellum) Fourth ventricle Pons Choroid plexus Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord Corpus callosum Fornix Lateral ventricle (covered by septum pellucidum) Thalamus Posterior commissure Epithalamus Third ventricle Pineal gland Corpora quadrigemina Anterior commissure Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Hypothalamus Arbor vitae Fourth ventricle Optic chiasma Cerebellum Mammillary body Pons Medulla oblongata © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.10a Midsagittal section of the brain.
Cerebral hemisphere Corpus callosum Septum pellucidum Fornix Interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass of thalamus) Choroid plexus Thalamus (encloses third ventricle) Posterior commissure Interventricular foramen Epithalamus Pineal gland Anterior commissure Corpora quadrigemina Hypothalamus Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Optic chiasma Pituitary gland Arbor vitae (of cerebellum) Mammillary body Fourth ventricle Pons Choroid plexus Cerebellum Medulla oblongata Spinal cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.10b Midsagittal section of the brain.
Corpus callosum Fornix Lateral ventricle (covered by septum pellucidum) Thalamus Posterior commissure Epithalamus Third ventricle Pineal gland Corpora quadrigemina Anterior commissure Midbrain Cerebral aqueduct Hypothalamus Arbor vitae Fourth ventricle Optic chiasma Cerebellum Mammillary body Pons Medulla oblongata © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.11 Selected structures of the diencephalon.
Paraventricular nucleus Medial dorsal nucleus Lateral dorsal nucleus Lateral posterior nucleus Anterior commissure Dorsomedial nucleus Fornix Preoptic nucleus Posterior hypothalamic nucleus Pulvinar Anterior hypothalamic nucleus Anterior nuclei Lateral hypothalamic area Medial geniculate body Supraoptic nucleus Suprachiasmatic nucleus Ventromedial nucleus Reticular nucleus Lateral geniculate body Optic chiasma Arcuate nucleus Mammillary body Ventral postero- lateral Ventral anterior Ventral lateral Infundibulum (stalk of the pituitary gland) Pituitary gland Ventral nuclei The main thalamic nuclei. (The reticular nuclei that “cap” the thalamus laterally are depicted as curving translucent structures.) The main hypothalamic nuclei. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.11a Selected structures of the diencephalon.
Medial dorsal nucleus Lateral dorsal nucleus Lateral posterior nucleus Pulvinar Anterior nuclei Medial geniculate body Reticular nucleus Lateral geniculate body Ventral postero- lateral Ventral anterior Ventral lateral Ventral nuclei The main thalamic nuclei. (The reticular nuclei that “cap” the thalamus laterally are depicted as curving translucent structures.) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.11b Selected structures of the diencephalon.
Paraventricular nucleus Anterior commissure Dorsomedial nucleus Fornix Preoptic nucleus Posterior hypothalamic nucleus Anterior hypothalamic nucleus Lateral hypothalamic area Supraoptic nucleus Suprachiasmatic nucleus Ventromedial nucleus Optic chiasma Arcuate nucleus Mammillary body Infundibulum (stalk of the pituitary gland) Pituitary gland The main hypothalamic nuclei. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Frontal lobe Olfactory bulb (synapse point of cranial nerve I)
Figure Inferior view of the brain, showing the three parts of the brain stem: midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. Frontal lobe Olfactory bulb (synapse point of cranial nerve I) Optic chiasma Optic nerve (II) Optic tract Mammillary body Midbrain Pons Temporal lobe Medulla oblongata Cerebellum Spinal cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.13a–b Three views of the brain stem (green) and the diencephalon (purple).
Thalamus Hypothalamus Midbrain Pons Diencephalon View (a) View (c) Brain stem Medulla oblongata View (b) Optic chiasma Diencephalon • Thalamus • Hypothalamus Optic nerve (II) Optic tract Thalamus Mammillary body Infundibulum Oculomotor nerve (III) Pituitary gland Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Trochlear nerve (IV) Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain) Trochlear nerve (IV) Superior cerebellar peduncle Middle cerebellar peduncle Trigeminal nerve (V) Pons Middle cerebellar peduncle Facial nerve (VII) Abducens nerve (VI) Inferior cerebellar peduncle Abducens nerve (VI) Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Olive Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Pyramid Ventral root of first cervical nerve Vagus nerve (X) Accessory nerve (XI) Decussation of pyramids Spinal cord Ventral view Left lateral view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Oculomotor nerve (III) Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain)
Figure 12.13a Three views of the brain stem (green) and the diencephalon (purple). Thalamus Diencephalon Hypothalamus Midbrain View (a) View (c) Pons Brain stem Medulla oblongata View (b) Diencephalon Optic chiasma • Thalamus Optic nerve (II) • Hypothalamus Optic tract Mammillary body Oculomotor nerve (III) Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain) Trochlear nerve (IV) Middle cerebellar peduncle Trigeminal nerve (V) Pons Abducens nerve (VI) Facial nerve (VII) Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Pyramid Vagus nerve (X) Ventral root of first cervical nerve Accessory nerve (XI) Decussation of pyramids Spinal cord Ventral view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain) Trochlear nerve (IV)
Figure 12.13b Three views of the brain stem (green) and the diencephalon (purple). Thalamus Diencephalon Hypothalamus Midbrain View (a) View (c) Pons Brain stem Medulla oblongata View (b) Optic tract Thalamus Infundibulum Pituitary gland Superior colliculus Inferior colliculus Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncles (midbrain) Trochlear nerve (IV) Trigeminal nerve (V) Superior cerebellar peduncle Pons Middle cerebellar peduncle Facial nerve (VII) Inferior cerebellar peduncle Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) Abducens nerve (VI) Olive Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Vagus nerve (X) Accessory nerve (XI) Left lateral view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Superior cerebellar peduncle
Figure 12.13c Three views of the brain stem (green) and the diencephalon (purple). Thalamus Diencephalon Hypothalamus Midbrain View (a) View (c) Pons Brain stem Medulla oblongata View (b) Thalamus Midbrain Diencephalon • Superior colliculus Corpora quadrigemina of tectum • Inferior colliculus Pineal gland • Trochlear nerve (IV) • Superior cerebellar peduncle Pons Floor of fourth ventricle • Middle cerebellar peduncle Medulla oblongata Facial nerve (VII) • Inferior cerebellar peduncle Choroid plexus (fourth ventricle) • Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) • Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Dorsal median sulcus • Vagus nerve (X) • Accessory nerve (XI) Dorsal root of first cervical nerve Dorsal view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.14 Cross sections through different regions of the brain stem.
Dorsal Superior colliculus Tectum Periaqueductal gray matter Cerebral aqueduct Oculomotor nucleus (III) Reticular formation Medial lemniscus Red nucleus Substantia nigra Fibers of pyramidal tract Ventral Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncle Midbrain Fourth ventricle Solitary nucleus Hypoglossal nucleus (XII) Superior cerebellar peduncle Fourth ventricle Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus (X) Choroid plexus Vestibular nuclei (VIII) Trigeminal main sensory nucleus Reticular formation Inferior cerebellar peduncle Cochlear nuclei (VIII) Trigeminal motor nucleus Lateral nuclear group Middle cerebellar peduncle Reticular formation Medial nuclear group Nucleus ambiguus Raphe nucleus Trigeminal nerve (V) Pontine nuclei Inferior olivary nucleus Fibers of pyramidal tract Medial lemniscus Medial lemniscus Pyramid Pons Medulla oblongata © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Tectum Superior Dorsal colliculus Periaqueductal gray matter
Figure 12.14a Cross sections through different regions of the brain stem. Tectum Dorsal Superior colliculus Periaqueductal gray matter Cerebral aqueduct Oculomotor nucleus (III) Reticular formation Medial lemniscus Red nucleus Substantia nigra Fibers of pyramidal tract Ventral Crus cerebri of cerebral peduncle Midbrain © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior cerebellar peduncle Fourth ventricle Trigeminal main sensory
Figure 12.14b Cross sections through different regions of the brain stem. Superior cerebellar peduncle Fourth ventricle Trigeminal main sensory nucleus Reticular formation Trigeminal motor nucleus Middle cerebellar peduncle Pontine nuclei Trigeminal nerve (V) Fibers of pyramidal tract Medial lemniscus Pons © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hypoglossal nucleus (XII) Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus (X) Choroid
Figure 12.14c Cross sections through different regions of the brain stem. Fourth ventricle Solitary nucleus Hypoglossal nucleus (XII) Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus (X) Choroid plexus Vestibular nuclei (VIII) Inferior cerebellar peduncle Cochlear nuclei (VIII) Lateral nuclear group Reticular formation Medial nuclear group Nucleus ambiguus Inferior olivary nucleus Raphe nucleus Medial lemniscus Pyramid Medulla oblongata © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.15 Cerebellum. Anterior lobe Anterior lobe Arbor vitae
Cerebellar cortex Cerebellar cortex Arbor vitae Cerebellar peduncles Pons Posterior lobe • Superior Fourth ventricle Posterior lobe • Middle Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle • Inferior Medulla oblongata Flocculonodular lobe Medulla oblongata Flocculonodular lobe Choroid plexus Anterior lobe Primary fissure Posterior lobe Horizontal fissure Vermis Vermis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior lobe Arbor vitae Cerebellar cortex Pons Fourth ventricle
Figure 12.15a Cerebellum. Anterior lobe Arbor vitae Cerebellar cortex Pons Fourth ventricle Posterior lobe Medulla oblongata Flocculonodular lobe Choroid plexus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior lobe Cerebellar cortex Arbor vitae Cerebellar peduncles
Figure 12.15b Cerebellum. Anterior lobe Cerebellar cortex Arbor vitae Cerebellar peduncles Posterior lobe • Superior • Middle Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle • Inferior Medulla oblongata Flocculonodular lobe © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.15c–d Cerebellum. Anterior lobe Primary fissure Posterior
Horizontal fissure Vermis Vermis © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.16 The limbic system.
Septum pellucidum Corpus callosum Diencephalic structures of the limbic system Fiber tracts connecting limbic system structures Fornix Anterior thalamic nuclei (flanking 3rd ventricle) Anterior commissure Cerebral structures of the limbic system Hypothalamus Cingulate gyrus Septal nuclei Mammillary body Amygdaloid body Hippocampus • Dentate gyrus Olfactory bulb • Parahippocampal gyrus © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 12.1 Functions of Major Brain Regions (1 of 4)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.17 The reticular formation.
Radiations to cerebral cortex Visual impulses Auditory impulses Reticular formation Ascending general sensory tracts (touch, pain, temperature) Descending motor projections to spinal cord © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.18 Electroencephalography (EEG) and brain waves.
1-second interval Alpha waves—awake but relaxed Beta waves—awake, alert Theta waves—common in children Delta waves—deep sleep Scalp electrodes are used to record brain wave activity. Brain waves shown in EEGs fall into four general classes. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.18a Electroencephalography (EEG) and brain waves.
Scalp electrodes are used to record brain wave activity. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.18b Electroencephalography (EEG) and brain waves.
1-second interval Alpha waves—awake but relaxed Beta waves—awake, alert Theta waves—common in children Delta waves—deep sleep Brain waves shown in EEGs fall into four general classes. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.19 Types and stages of sleep.
Awake REM: Skeletal muscles (except ocular muscles and diaphragm) are actively inhibited; most dreaming occurs. NREM stage 1: Relaxation begins; EEG shows alpha waves; arousal is easy. NREM stage 2: Irregular EEG with sleep spindles (short high- amplitude bursts); arousal is more difficult. NREM stage 3: Sleep deepens; theta and delta waves appear; vital signs decline. NREM stage 4: EEG is dominated by delta waves; arousal is difficult; bed-wetting, night terrors, and sleepwalking may occur. Typical EEG patterns Awake REM Stage 1 Stage 2 NREM Stage 3 Stage 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Time (hrs) Typical progression of an adult through one night’s sleep stages © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.19a Types and stages of sleep.
Awake REM: Skeletal muscles (except ocular muscles and diaphragm) are actively inhibited; most dreaming occurs. NREM stage 1: Relaxation begins; EEG shows alpha waves; arousal is easy. NREM stage 2: Irregular EEG with sleep spindles (short high- amplitude bursts); arousal is more difficult. NREM stage 3: Sleep deepens; theta and delta waves appear; vital signs decline. NREM stage 4: EEG is dominated by delta waves; arousal is difficult; bed-wetting, night terrors, and sleepwalking may occur. Typical EEG patterns © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.19b Types and stages of sleep.
Awake REM Stage 1 Stage 2 NREM Stage 3 Stage 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Time (hrs) Typical progression of an adult through one night’s sleep stages © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.20 Memory processing.
Outside stimuli General and special sensory receptors Afferent inputs Temporary storage (buffer) in cerebral cortex Data permanently lost Data selected for transfer Automatic memory Forget Short-term memory (STM) Forget Data transfer influenced by: Retrieval Excitement Rehearsal Associating new data with stored data Long-term memory (LTM) Data unretrievable © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.21 Proposed memory circuits.
Thalamus Sensory input Thalamus Basal forebrain Touch Prefrontal cortex Association cortex Medial temporal lobe (hippocampus, etc.) Prefrontal cortex Hearing Vision Taste Smell ACh released by basal forebrain Hippocampus Declarative memory circuits Premotor cortex Sensory and motor inputs Association cortex Basal nuclei Thalamus Premotor cortex Dopamine released by substantia nigra Basal nuclei Thalamus Substantia nigra Procedural (skills) memory circuits © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.21a Proposed memory circuits.
Thalamus Sensory input Thalamus Basal forebrain Touch Prefrontal cortex Association cortex Medial temporal lobe (hippocampus, etc.) Prefrontal cortex Hearing Smell Vision Taste ACh released by basal forebrain Hippocampus Declarative memory circuits © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.21b Proposed memory circuits.
Premotor cortex Sensory and motor inputs Association cortex Basal nuclei Premotor cortex Thalamus Dopamine released by substantia nigra Basal nuclei Thalamus Substantia nigra Procedural (skills) memory circuits © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.22 Meninges: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
Skin of scalp Periosteum Bone of skull Dura mater • Periosteal layer • Meningeal layer Superior sagittal sinus Arachnoid mater Pia mater Subdural space Arachnoid villus Blood vessel Subarachnoid space Falx cerebri (in longitudinal fissure only) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.23 Dural septa and dural venous sinuses.
Superior sagittal sinus Parietal bone Scalp Falx cerebri Occipital lobe Straight sinus Tentorium cerebelli Crista galli of the ethmoid bone Dura mater Falx cerebelli Transverse sinus Pituitary gland Cerebellum Temporal bone Arachnoid mater over medulla oblongata Midsagittal view Posterior dissection © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.23a Dural septa and dural venous sinuses.
Superior sagittal sinus Falx cerebri Straight sinus Tentorium cerebelli Crista galli of the ethmoid bone Falx cerebelli Pituitary gland Midsagittal view © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.23b Dural septa and dural venous sinuses.
Superior sagittal sinus Parietal bone Scalp Falx cerebri Occipital lobe Tentorium cerebelli Dura mater Falx cerebelli Transverse sinus Cerebellum Temporal bone Arachnoid mater over medulla oblongata Posterior dissection © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.24 Formation, location, and circulation of CSF.
Superior sagittal sinus Arachnoid villus Choroid plexus Subarachnoid space Arachnoid mater Meningeal dura mater Periosteal dura mater Right lateral ventricle (deep to cut) Interventricular foramen Third ventricle Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Lateral aperture Fourth ventricle Median aperture Central canal of spinal cord 1 The choroid plexus of each ventricle produces CSF. Ependymal cells Capillary Section of choroid plexus 2 CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Connective tissue of pia mater 3 CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. 4 CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi. Wastes and unnecessary solutes absorbed CSF forms as a filtrate containing glucose, oxygen, vitamins, and ions (Na+, Cl–, Mg2+, etc.) Cavity of ventricle CSF circulation CSF formation by choroid plexuses © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.24a Formation, location, and circulation of CSF.
Superior sagittal sinus Arachnoid villus Choroid plexus Subarachnoid space Arachnoid mater Meningeal dura mater Periosteal dura mater 1 Right lateral ventricle (deep to cut) Interventricular foramen Third ventricle 3 Choroid plexus of fourth ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Lateral aperture Fourth ventricle 1 The choroid plexus of each Ventricle produces CSF. Median aperture 2 2 CSF flows through the ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral apertures. Central canal of spinal cord 3 CSF flows through the subarachnoid space. (a) CSF circulation 4 CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.24b Formation, location, and circulation of CSF.
Ependymal cells Capillary Section of choroid plexus Connective tissue of pia mater Wastes and unnecessary solutes absorbed CSF forms as a filtrate containing glucose, oxygen, vitamins, and ions (Na+, Cl–, Mg2+, etc.) Cavity of ventricle CSF formation by choroid plexuses © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.25 Hydrocephalus in a newborn.

Figure 12.26 Gross structure of the spinal cord, dorsal view.
Cranial dura mater Terminus of medulla oblongata of brain Cervical spinal nerves Sectioned pedicles of cervical vertebrae Cervical enlargement Spinal nerve rootlets Dorsal median sulcus of spinal cord Dura and arachnoid mater Cervical spinal cord. Thoracic spinal nerves Spinal cord Vertebral arch Lumbar enlargement Denticulate ligament Denticulate ligament Conus medullaris Dorsal median sulcus Arachnoid mater Cauda equina Lumbar spinal nerves Dorsal root Spinal dura mater Filum terminale Thoracic spinal cord, showing denticulate ligaments. Sacral spinal nerves Spinal cord Cauda equina First lumbar vertebral arch (cut across) Conus medullaris The spinal cord and its nerve roots, with the bony vertebral arches removed. The dura mater and arachnoid mater are cut open and reflected laterally. Spinous process of second lumbar vertebra Filum terminale Inferior end of spinal cord, showing conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.26a Gross structure of the spinal cord, dorsal view.
Cervical spinal nerves Cervical enlargement Dura and arachnoid mater Thoracic spinal nerves Lumbar enlargement Conus medullaris Cauda equina Lumbar spinal nerves Filum terminale Sacral spinal nerves The spinal cord and its nerve roots, with the bony vertebral arches removed. The dura mater and arachnoid mater are cut open and reflected laterally. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.26b Gross structure of the spinal cord, dorsal view.
Cranial dura mater Terminus of medulla oblongata of brain Sectioned pedicles of cervical vertebrae Spinal nerve rootlets Dorsal median sulcus of spinal cord Cervical spinal cord. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.26c Gross structure of the spinal cord, dorsal view.
Vertebral arch Denticulate ligament Denticulate ligament Dorsal median sulcus Arachnoid mater Dorsal root Spinal dura mater Thoracic spinal cord, showing denticulate ligaments. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.26d Gross structure of the spinal cord, dorsal view.
Cauda equina First lumbar vertebral arch (cut across) Conus medullaris Spinous process of second lumbar vertebra Filum terminale Inferior end of spinal cord, showing conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale. © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.27 Diagram of a lumbar tap.
Ligamentum flavum Lumbar puncture needle entering subarachnoid space L4 Supra- spinous ligament L5 Filum terminale S1 Inter- vertebral disc Cauda equina in subarachnoid space Arachnoid mater Dura mater © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.28 Anatomy of the spinal cord.
Epidural space (contains fat) Pia mater Arachnoid mater Spinal meninges Subdural space Dura mater Subarachnoid space (contains CSF) Bone of vertebra Dorsal root ganglion Body of vertebra Cross section of spinal cord and vertebra Dorsal median sulcus Dorsal funiculus Gray commissure Dorsal horn White columns Ventral funiculus Gray matter Ventral horn Lateral funiculus Lateral horn Dorsal root ganglion Spinal nerve Central canal Dorsal root (fans out into dorsal rootlets) Ventral median fissure Pia mater Ventral root (derived from several ventral rootlets) Arachnoid mater Spinal dura mater The spinal cord and its meningeal coverings © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.28a Anatomy of the spinal cord.
Epidural space (contains fat) Pia mater Arachnoid mater Spinal meninges Subdural space Dura mater Subarachnoid space (contains CSF) Bone of vertebra Dorsal root ganglion Body of vertebra Cross section of spinal cord and vertebra © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.28b Anatomy of the spinal cord.
Dorsal median sulcus Dorsal funiculus Gray commissure Dorsal horn White columns Ventral funiculus Gray matter Ventral horn Lateral funiculus Lateral horn Dorsal root ganglion Spinal nerve Central canal Dorsal root (fans out into dorsal rootlets) Ventral median fissure Pia mater Ventral root (derived from several ventral rootlets) Arachnoid mater Spinal dura mater The spinal cord and its meningeal coverings © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.29 Organization of the gray matter of the spinal cord.
Dorsal root (sensory) Dorsal horn (interneurons) Dorsal root ganglion SS VS Somatic sensory neuron VM Visceral sensory neuron SM Visceral motor neuron Somatic motor neuron Spinal nerve Ventral horn (motor neurons) Ventral root (motor) SS Interneurons receiving input from somatic sensory neurons VS Interneurons receiving input from visceral sensory neurons VM Visceral motor (autonomic) neurons SM Somatic motor neurons © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

spinocerebellar tract Lateral corticospinal tract
Figure Major ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts of the spinal cord, cross-sectional view. Ascending tracts Descending tracts Ventral white commissure Dorsal white column Fasciculus gracilis Fasciculus cuneatus Lateral reticulospinal tract Dorsal spinocerebellar tract Lateral corticospinal tract Ventral spinocerebellar tract Rubrospinal tract Medial reticulospinal tract Lateral spinothalamic tract Ventral corticospinal tract Ventral spinothalamic tract Vestibulospinal tract Tectospinal tract © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.31 Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts.
Primary somatosensory cortex Axons of third-order neurons Thalamus Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Dorsal spinocerebellar tract (axons of second-order neurons) Medial lemniscus (tract) (axons of second-order neurons) Lateral spinothalamic tract (axons of second-order neurons) Nucleus gracilis Nucleus cuneatus Medulla oblongata Fasciculus cuneatus (axon of first-order sensory neuron) Pain receptors Joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor) Axon of first-order neuron Cervical spinal cord Axons of first-order neurons Fasciculus gracilis (axon of first-order sensory neuron) Muscle spindle (proprioceptor) Temperature receptors Lumbar spinal cord Touch receptor Spinocerebellar pathway Dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathway Spinothalamic pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.31a Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts.
Primary somatosensory cortex Axons of third-order neurons Thalamus Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Dorsal spinocerebellar tract (axons of second-order neurons) Medial lemniscus (tract) (axons of second-order neurons) Nucleus gracilis Nucleus cuneatus Medulla oblongata Fasciculus cuneatus (axon of first-order sensory neuron) Joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor) Axon of first-order neuron Cervical spinal cord Fasciculus gracilis (axon of first-order sensory neuron) Muscle spindle (proprioceptor) Lumbar spinal cord Touch receptor Spinocerebellar pathway Dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinocerebellar pathway Dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathway
Figure 12.31a Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts. (1 of 2) Primary somatosensory cortex Axons of third-order neurons Thalamus Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Spinocerebellar pathway Dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Medial lemniscus (tract) (axons of second-order neurons)
Figure 12.31a Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts. (2 of 2) Dorsal spinocerebellar tract (axons of second-order neurons) Medial lemniscus (tract) (axons of second-order neurons) Nucleus gracilis Nucleus cuneatus Medulla oblongata Fasciculus cuneatus (axon of first-order sensory neuron) Joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor) Axon of first-order neuron Cervical spinal cord Fasciculus gracilis (axon of first-order sensory neuron) Muscle spindle (proprioceptor) Lumbar spinal cord Touch receptor Spinocerebellar pathway Dorsal column–medial lemniscal pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.31b Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts.
Primary somatosensory cortex Axons of third-order neurons Thalamus Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Lateral spinothalamic tract (axons of second-order neurons) Medulla oblongata Pain receptors Cervical spinal cord Axons of first-order neurons Temperature receptors Lumbar spinal cord Spinothalamic pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinothalamic pathway
Figure 12.31b Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts. (1 of 2) Primary somatosensory cortex Axons of third-order neurons Thalamus Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Spinothalamic pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spinothalamic pathway
Figure 12.31b Pathways of selected ascending spinal cord tracts. (2 of 2) Lateral spinothalamic tract (axons of second-order neurons) Medulla oblongata Pain receptors Cervical spinal cord Axons of first-order neurons Temperature receptors Lumbar spinal cord Spinothalamic pathway © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 12.2 Major Ascending (Sensory) Pathways and Spinal Cord Tracts (1 of 3)

Pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) pathways
Figure Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement. Pyramidal cells (upper motor neurons) Primary motor cortex Internal capsule Cerebrum Red nucleus Midbrain Cerebral peduncle Cerebellum Pons Rubrospinal tract Ventral corticospinal tract Medulla oblongata Pyramids Decussation of pyramids Lateral corticospinal tract Cervical spinal cord Skeletal muscle Lumbar spinal cord Somatic motor neurons (lower motor neurons) Pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) pathways Rubrospinal tract © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.32a Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement. Pyramidal cells (upper motor neurons) Primary motor cortex Internal capsule Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebral peduncle Cerebellum Pons Ventral corticospinal tract Medulla oblongata Pyramids Decussation of pyramids Lateral corticospinal tract Cervical spinal cord Skeletal muscle Lumbar spinal cord Somatic motor neurons (lower motor neurons) © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. Pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) pathways

Figure 12.32a Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement. (1 of 2) Pyramidal cells (upper motor neurons) Primary motor cortex Internal capsule Cerebrum Midbrain Cerebral peduncle Cerebellum Pons Pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) pathways © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.32a Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement. (2 of 2) Ventral corticospinal tract Medulla oblongata Pyramids Decussation of pyramids Lateral corticospinal tract Cervical spinal cord Skeletal muscle Lumbar spinal cord Somatic motor neurons (lower motor neurons) Pyramidal (lateral and ventral corticospinal) pathways © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.32b Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement.
Cerebrum Red nucleus Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Rubrospinal tract Medulla oblongata Cervical spinal cord Lumbar spinal cord Rubrospinal tract © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cerebrum Red nucleus Midbrain Cerebellum Pons
Figure 12.32b Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement. (1 of 2) Cerebrum Red nucleus Midbrain Cerebellum Pons Rubrospinal tract © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Rubrospinal tract Medulla oblongata Cervical spinal cord
Figure 12.32b Three descending pathways by which the brain influences movement. (2 of 2) Rubrospinal tract Medulla oblongata Cervical spinal cord Lumbar spinal cord Rubrospinal tract © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Table 12.3 Major Descending (Motor) Pathways and Spinal Cord Tracts (1 of 2)

Table 12.3 Major Descending (Motor) Pathways and Spinal Cord Tracts (2 of 2)

Figure 12.33 Development of the neural tube from embryonic ectoderm.
Neural fold forming Head Surface ectoderm Neural plate Tail The neural plate forms from surface ectoderm. It then invaginates, forming the neural groove flanked by neural folds. 1 Neural crest Neural groove Neural fold cells migrate to form the neural crest, which will form much of the PNS and many other structures. 2 Head Surface ectoderm Neural tube Tail The neural groove becomes the neural tube, which will form CNS structures. 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The neural plate forms from surface ectoderm. It then
Figure Development of the neural tube from embryonic ectoderm. (1 of 3) Neural fold forming Head Surface ectoderm Neural plate Tail The neural plate forms from surface ectoderm. It then invaginates, forming the neural groove flanked by neural folds. 1 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Neural fold cells migrate to form the neural crest, which
Figure Development of the neural tube from embryonic ectoderm. (2 of 3) Neural crest Neural groove Neural fold cells migrate to form the neural crest, which will form much of the PNS and many other structures. 2 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

The neural groove becomes the neural tube, which will
Figure Development of the neural tube from embryonic ectoderm. (3 of 3) Head Surface ectoderm Neural tube Tail The neural groove becomes the neural tube, which will form CNS structures. 3 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.34 Structure of the embryonic spinal cord.
Dorsal root ganglion: sensory neurons from neural crest Alar plate: interneurons White matter Basal plate: motor neurons Neural tube cells Central cavity © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 12.35 Newborn with a lumbar myelomeningocele.

Chapter Opener 12 © 2013 Pearson Education, Inc..

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