1. The Working Memory Model http://www. cogmed

2. Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Believed memory is not just one store but a number of different stores;
Focused on STM ONLY and believed it was not a unitary store;
LTM as a more passive store that holds previously learned material for use by the STM when needed.

3. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
Print this off to A3 paper and sick outside classroom for memory game

4. Central executive Key component in model Functions: Limited Capacity
Direct attention to tasks
Determine how resources (slave systems) are allocated.
Limited Capacity

5. Phonological Loop Limited Capacity
Deals with auditory information and preserves word order
Baddeley (1986) further subdivided it into
Phonological store; ( holds words heard)
Articulatory process: holds words heard/seen and silently repeated like an inner voice.

6. Visuo-spatial sketch pad
Visual and/or spatial information stored here.
Visual = what things look like; iconic memory
Spatial = relationships between things – for example, how to get from here to the post office.
Limited capacity

7. Episodic Buffer
Baddeley ( 2000) added episodic buffer as he realized model needed a more general store.
Slave systems deal with specific types of information.
Central executive has no storage capacity
Buffer extra storage system but with limited capacity.
Integrates information from all other areas.

8. Evidence for the Working Memory Model

9. To test the idea of more than one component, Baddeley and Hitch devised the dual task technique.

10. You will now complete a dual task technique used by Baddeley & Hitch.
Repeat the numbers below aloud while ticking the true/false answers
482917

11. 1: B is followed by A BA True/False
2: A is preceded by B AB True/False
3: A is not followed by B BA True/False
4: B follows A AB True/False
5: B does not follow A BA True/False
6: B is not followed by A AB True/False
7: A follows B AB True/False
8: B is not preceded by A AB True/False
9: A is not followed by B BA True/False
10: B does not precede A AB True/False

12. Their research (Baddeley & Hitch)…..
Asked participants to perform a reasoning task whilst simultaneously reciting aloud a list of 6 digits.
If digit span is really a measure of STM capacity, participants would be expected to show impaired performance on the reasoning task because their STM would be fully occupied.
However, found participants made few errors on either, though the speed was slightly slower.

13. Evidence for the central executive
Baddeley (1996) investigated selective attention and switching retrieval plans. Asked participants to generate random strings of digits on a keyboard (this is quite hard as you have to pay close attention in order to avoid some kind of pattern emerging).
This was carried out alone or alongside another task such as reciting the alphabet, counting from one or alternating between letters and numbers (A1, B2, C3).
The generated digit string became increasingly less random in Condition 3 where participants had to switch from alphabet to numbers at the same time.
Baddeley concluded that both the random number generation task and the alternation task were competing for the same central executive resources.

14. More evidence for CE
Individuals had to perform two tasks simultaneously (dual task) rather than one after the other (single task).
Bunge et al (2000) used fMRI to see which parts of the brain were most active when participants were doing two tasks (reading a sentence and recalling the final word in each sentence).
The same brain areas (pre-frontal cortex) were active in either dual or single task conditions but there was significantly more activation in dual task condition

15. Evidence for the phonological loop and articulatory process
Try to remember the following list of words.

16. Harm

17. Twice

18. Calm

19. Share

20. Tree

21. Book

22. Sun

23. Four

24. Key

25. Short

26. Write down as many as you remember!

27. How many did you get right?
Harm
Twice
Calm
Share
Tree
Book
Sun
Four
Key
Short

28. Now let’s try it again with a different list of words.

29. Association

30. Representative

31. Discouragement

32. Meaningfulness

33. Suppression

34. Enhancing

35. Component

36. Performances

37. Forgetting

38. Damaging

39. Write down the words you remember

40. How many did you get right?
Association
Representative
Discouragement
Meaningfulness
Suppression
Enhancing
Component
Performances
Forgetting
Damaging

41. The phonological loop explains why the word- length effect occurs – the fact that people cope better with short words than long words in working memory (STM).

42. Word- length effect
It seems that the phonological loop holds the amount of information that you can say in seconds (Baddeley et al, 1975).
This makes it hard to remember a list of long words such as ‘association’ and ‘representative’ compared to shorter words like ‘harm’ and ‘twice’ and therefore inhibits rehearsal of longer words!

43. Word length effect disappears if a person is given an articulatory suppression task (‘the, the, the’ while reading the words).
The repetitive task ties up the articulatory process and means you can’t rehearse the shorter words more quickly than the longer ones, so the word length effect disappears.

44. Evidence for the visuo-spatial sketchpad
Baddeley et al (1975) demonstrated the existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
Participants were given a visual tracing task (they had to track a moving light with a pointer). At the same time they were given one of two other tasks; task 1 was to describe all the angles on the letter F, task 2 was to perform a verbal task. Task 1 was very difficult, but not task 2, presumably because the second task involved two different components (or slave systems).
This is also evidence related to the effects of doing two tasks using the same or different components. This was a highly controlled laboratory experiment using a repeated measures design to eliminate individual differences. However, the task was rather artificial.

45. Also….
Logie (1995) Visual cache stores information about visual form and colour and the inner scribe processes spatial and movement information.
Klauer and Zhao (2004) supported this idea by asking participants to carry out one of two primary tasks, either a visual task or a spatial task. At the same time as doing this task they were asked to do either a spatial interference task, a visual interference task or no secondary task (control condition). They found that performance of the spatial task was much poorer for people who were simultaneously carrying out the spatial distracter task than for people who were doing the visual distracter task and vice versa.
Studies using positron emission tomography (PET) scans have also provided evidence for separate spatial and visual systems. There appears to be more activity in the left half of the brain of people carrying out visual working memory tasks but more in the right half of the brain during spatial task.

46. Evidence for the episodic buffer
Baddeley et al (1987)
Participants were shown words and then immediate recall
Recall was much better for sentences (related words) than unrelated words.
Supports idea of ‘general’ memory store that draws on LTM (semantics)

47. Evidence from brain damaged patients
Case of KF (Shallice &Warrington, 1970) showed that STM works independently of LTM
STM forgetting of auditory information was much greater than that of visual stimuli. Thus his brain damage seemed to be restricted to the phonological loop.
Letters
Meaningful sounds…ring ring

48. Also….
SC - generally good learning abilities with the exception of being unable to learn word pairs that were presented out loud. This suggests damage to the phonological loop (Trojano and Grossi, 1995)
LH - had been involved in a road accident. Performed better on spatial tasks than those involving visual imagery (Farah et al, 1988). This suggests separate visual and spatial systems.