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Application: The Costs of Taxation
8 Application: The Costs of Taxation
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Application: The Costs of Taxation
Welfare economics is the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Buyers and sellers receive benefits from taking part in the market. The equilibrium in a market maximizes the total welfare of buyers and sellers.
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THE DEADWEIGHT LOSS OF TAXATION
How do taxes affect the economic well-being of market participants?
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THE DEADWEIGHT LOSS OF TAXATION
It does not matter whether a tax on a good is levied on buyers or sellers of the good the price paid by buyers rises, and the price received by sellers falls.
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Figure 1 The Effects of a Tax
Price Demand Supply Price buyers pay Price sellers receive Quantity with tax Size of tax Price without tax Quantity Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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How a Tax Affects Market Participants
A tax places a wedge between the price buyers pay and the price sellers receive. Because of this tax wedge, the quantity sold falls below the level that would be sold without a tax. The size of the market for that good shrinks.
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How a Tax Affects Market Participants
Tax Revenue T = the size of the tax Q = the quantity of the good sold T Q = the government’s tax revenue
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Figure 2 Tax Revenue Price Demand Supply Quantity with tax
Price buyers pay Price sellers receive Tax revenue (T × Q) Size of tax (T) Quantity without tax Quantity sold (Q) Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 3 How a Tax Effects Welfare
Price Demand Supply = PB Q2 PS Price buyers pay sellers receive A F B D C E = P1 Q1 Price without tax Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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How a Tax Affects Market Participants
Changes in Welfare A deadweight loss is the fall in total surplus that results from a market distortion, such as a tax.
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How a Tax Affects Welfare
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How a Tax Affects Market Participants
The change in total welfare includes: The change in consumer surplus, The change in producer surplus, and The change in tax revenue. The losses to buyers and sellers exceed the revenue raised by the government. This fall in total surplus is called the deadweight loss.
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Deadweight Losses and the Gains from Trade
Taxes cause deadweight losses because they prevent buyers and sellers from realizing some of the gains from trade.
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Figure 4 The Deadweight Loss
Price Demand Lost gains from trade Supply PB Q2 PS Size of tax Price without tax Q1 Cost to sellers Value to buyers Quantity Reduction in quantity due to the tax Copyright©2010 South-Western
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DETERMINANTS OF THE DEADWEIGHT LOSS
What determines whether the deadweight loss from a tax is large or small? The magnitude of the deadweight loss depends on how much the quantity supplied and quantity demanded respond to changes in the price. That, in turn, depends on the price elasticities of supply and demand.
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Figure 5 Tax Distortions and Elasticities
(a) Inelastic Supply Price Demand Supply When supply is relatively inelastic, the deadweight loss of a tax is small. Size of tax Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 5 Tax Distortions and Elasticities
(b) Elastic Supply Price Demand When supply is relatively elastic, the deadweight loss of a tax is large. Size of tax Supply Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 5 Tax Distortions and Elasticities
(c) Inelastic Demand Price Supply Demand Size of tax When demand is relatively inelastic, the deadweight loss of a tax is small. Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 5 Tax Distortions and Elasticities
(d) Elastic Demand Price Supply Demand Size of tax When demand is relatively elastic, the deadweight loss of a tax is large. Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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DETERMINANTS OF THE DEADWEIGHT LOSS
The greater the elasticities of demand and supply: the larger will be the decline in equilibrium quantity and, the greater the deadweight loss of a tax.
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DEADWEIGHT LOSS AND TAX REVENUE AS TAXES VARY
The Deadweight Loss Debate Some economists argue that labour taxes are highly distorting and believe that labour supply is more elastic. Some examples of workers who may respond more to incentives: Workers who can adjust the number of hours they work Families with second earners Elderly who can choose when to retire Workers in the underground economy (i.e., those engaging in illegal activity)
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DEADWEIGHT LOSS AND TAX REVENUE AS TAXES VARY
With each increase in the tax rate, the deadweight loss of the tax rises even more rapidly than the size of the tax.
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Figure 6 Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue from Three Taxes of Different Sizes
(a) Small Tax Price Demand Deadweight loss Supply PB Q2 PS Tax revenue Q1 Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 6 Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue from Three Taxes of Different Sizes
(b) Medium Tax Price Demand Deadweight loss PB Q2 PS Tax revenue Supply Q1 Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 6 Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue from Three Taxes of Different Sizes
(c) Large Tax Price PB Q2 PS Demand Tax revenue Deadweight loss Supply Q1 Quantity Copyright©2010 South-Western
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DEADWEIGHT LOSS AND TAX REVENUE AS TAXES VARY
For the small tax, tax revenue is small. As the size of the tax rises, tax revenue grows. But as the size of the tax continues to rise, tax revenue falls because the higher tax reduces the size of the market.
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Figure 7 How Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue Vary with the Size of a Tax
(a) Deadweight Loss Deadweight Loss Tax Size Copyright©2010 South-Western
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Figure 7 How Deadweight Loss and Tax Revenue Vary with the Size of a Tax
(b) Revenue (the Laffer curve) Tax Revenue Tax Size Copyright©2010 South-Western
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DEADWEIGHT LOSS AND TAX REVENUE AS TAXES VARY
As the size of a tax increases, its deadweight loss quickly gets larger. By contrast, tax revenue first rises with the size of a tax, but then, as the tax gets larger, the market shrinks so much that tax revenue starts to fall.
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CASE STUDY: The Laffer Curve and Supply-side Economics
The Laffer curve depicts the relationship between tax rates and tax revenue. Supply-side economics refers to the views of Arthur Laffer and other economists who proposed that a tax cut would induce more people to work and thereby have the potential to increase tax revenues. These ideas were taken up by President Reagan in the USA and Prime Minister Thatcher in the UK in the 1980s.
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Summary A tax on a good reduces the welfare of buyers and sellers of the good, and the reduction in consumer and producer surplus usually exceeds the revenues raised by the government. The fall in total surplus—the sum of consumer surplus, producer surplus, and tax revenue — is called the deadweight loss of the tax.
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Summary Taxes have a deadweight loss because they cause buyers to consume less and sellers to produce less. This change in behavior shrinks the size of the market below the level that maximizes total surplus.
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Summary As a tax grows larger, it distorts incentives more, and its deadweight loss grows larger. Tax revenue first rises with the size of a tax. Eventually, however, a larger tax reduces tax revenue because it reduces the size of the market.
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Mini Quiz The deadweight loss from an economically inefficient situation is equal to a. consumer surplus minus producer surplus. b. consumer surplus plus producer surplus. c. the consumer and producer surplus that people could gain by eliminating that inefficiency. d. the increase in consumer surplus minus the increase in producer surplus that people could gain by eliminating that inefficiency. Suppose demand for electricity is perfectly price inelastic. A tax on electricity will be a. split between producers and consumers in equal shares. b. paid only by producers. c. paid only by consumers. d. split between producers and consumers in unequal shares.
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