1. LEARNING THEORY AND SCHOOL COUNSELING
S. Emily Curtis
Ann Sourbeer Morris
Salem College

2. Learning Theory What is learning?
Learning – enduring change in behavior resulting from practice or other forms of experience (Schunk, 2012)
Learning method – specific procedure or technique used to attain a learning goal (Schunk, 2012)
What is learning and how is learning theory important to the process? The question of what is learning must be answered first. Learning is viewed as a marked change in behavior that was brought about from some experience that occurred in the learner’s life (Schunk, 2012) Learning methods, or learning theories, are the tools used to impart knowledge in a strategic way. In order for learning to occur, there must be a method to the approach. This method allows instruction and learning to be reproduced, measured, and studied.

3. How does learning occur?
Two schools of thought on learning
Behavioral perspective
Cognitive perspective
Behavioral perspective – learning occurs from stimuli in the environment with little focus on the differences in learning style from one individual to another
Cognitive perspective – learning occurs through environmental stimuli and the learner’s application and attitude toward the information
The process of learning can be viewed from two different perspectives, from the point of view of behavioral theory and from cognitive theory (Schunk, 2012). The two concepts of learning and the definition of each is directly related to the corresponding counseling theories.
Learning through the lens of behavioral theory has a strong focus on how the environment affects learning. Just as with behavioral counseling theory, stimuli, responses, and reinforcements play an important role in how learning occurs. The specific environmental factors within learning theories are instruction and feedback, generally from the educator (Schunk, 2012).
One negative factor of the application of a behavioral approach to learning theory is the lack of consideration for differing learning styles among individuals (Schunk, 2012). Behavioral theory in learning deals with how each learner responds to the stimuli in his or her environment, but does not account for innate differences in how that stimulus is perceived and then applied.
Cognitive learning theory is also very similar to its corresponding counseling theory in that it does include ideas from behavioral theories, but it places an additional value on the perceptions of the individual and how he or she takes the new information and applies to him or herself. Also central to learning theory from a cognitive perspective is learner’s attitude toward the information (Schunk, 2012). A positive attitude toward learning and the topic at hand can lead to the individual gaining a deep understanding of information and an ability to find applications for the information in his or her own life. Of course a negative attitude toward learning and the information is not going to provide deep and meaningful learning or application of the information.

4. What is the role of memory in learning?
Memory can also be viewed from a behavioral or cognitive perspective.
Behavioral perspective – memory is more of a biological phenomenon than a conscious ability (Schunk, 2012)
Cognitive perspective – memory is central to learning
Memory is the manner in which information is stored and organized in the brain
Differing theories of learning place differing values on memory in the learning process. The behavioral theory of learning does not place a high value on memory in the learning process. Through the lens of behavioral theory, memory is something that naturally exists, but is not something to be controlled. Cognitive theorists take a dramatically different stance on the importance of memory in the learning process. Within cognitive theory, memory is crucial because that is where information is stored. Based on the level of importance placed on the information by the individual, the information will be stored and organized within the memory.

5. The application of memory in learning
Memory is activated through review of information
Behavioral theory calls for periodic review to maintain active memory of information
Review does not have to occur on a regular basis
Cognitive theory calls for review of occur often in order to maintain a highly functioning memory and recall
Again, the different approaches to learning from behavioral theory to cognitive theory are glaring. Based on the low value placed on memory in the behavioral theory, it is not irrational for there to be a low value placed on review for the purposes of recall. In the behavioral school of thought, once information has been learned, it can be re-activated through the same stimulus that led to the initial learning (Schunk, 2012). Only if the information is never used again can it be completely lost. However, in the cognitive theory of learning, review is essential to having a high level of recall and memory functioning (Schunk, 2012).

6. What is the role of motivation in learning?
Motivation – process of instigating and sustaining goal-directed activities (Schunk, 2012)
From a behavioral perspective – motivation occurs through reinforcement (Schunk, 2012)
From a cognitive perspective – motivation influences how information is processed (Schunk, 2012)
Is motivation actually that important in the learning process? This question is up for debate between behavioral theory and cognitive theory. Again, the stark differences between the behavioral theory of learning and the cognitive theory of learning are highlighted in terms of the value of motivation in the learning process.
Behavioral theorists do not place a great deal of value on motivation in terms of having a dramatic impact on the learning process. According to behavioral theory, learning and motivation are directly linked and inseparable (Schunk, 2012). Learning and motivation are both triggered through the reinforcements that occur during the stimulus and response interactions. As some form of reinforcement, or consequence, is natural when learning, or changing behaviors, there is no need to make a distinct separation between learning and motivation.
Cognitive theorists, however, believe that motivation is crucial to the learning process and consider motivation to be linked but separate from learning in general (Schunk, 2012). Cognitive theorists believe that learning and motivation can be separated, that learning can occur without motivation, but that motivation can occur and have an impact without anything being learned (Schunk, 2012). Motivation also influences the storage process and organization of information within memory. Information that was learned under great motivation is going to be stored in a way that it can be easily retrieved, whereas information learned without a great deal of motivation is not going to hold a position of priority within memory. There are also a number of cognitive processes that affect an individual’s motivation, such as goals, social comparisons, self-efficacy, values, and interests (Schunk, 2012).

7. What factors influence learning?
Modalities
Auditory
Visual
Kinesthetic
Learning Styles
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Instruction Styles
Motivation
There are many factors that can influence learning. One factor previously mentioned is motivation. Motivation is critical to the learning process. When students lack an intrinsic motivation, it is very difficult to create a desire to learn through extrinsic motivation. Students who are not motivated may even create a “wall” against the information to be learned. It is important for educators to create an environment that encourages learning and motivation from outside and within.
Modalities and learning styles can have similar impacts on the learning process. It is important to know about learning modalities and learning styles in order to reach out to students within their strengths. The average student is a visual learner, kinesthetic learner, or a combination of the two. With this in mind, educators must plan instruction to meet those needs. Clearly, just presenting information in lecture style is not conducive to the visual or kinesthetic learner. Therefore, educators must tailor instruction to meet the learning modes and styles of their students.
With this in mind, it is most beneficial to teach to as many of the multiple intelligences as possible. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences labels seven specific styles of learning that can be addressed in most any classroom setting. These seven intelligences are: visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, and logical-mathematical (Lane, n.d.). Students who learn well through visuals can be reached through pictures or charts. Students who learn through music will succeed with information presented in a song. Any of these methods could be helpful for any student, whether it is their preferred learning style or not. By catering to each learning styles it is more likely that students will have a greater opportunity to learn and motivation can be improved by providing students with a sense of belonging.

8. Current questions in school counseling with regard to learning theories.
How can school counselors be an asset to classroom teachers and the application of learning theories?
How can knowledge and understanding of learning theories be beneficial for school counselors in the counseling setting?
School counselors are an under-used asset in classroom instruction. So often, teachers don’t even realize that school counselors possess skills that can be useful in understanding and meeting the needs of all students in a classroom. School counselors have been trained to understand difference that may exist among students on social, academic, and emotional levels. These are factors to learning that are often overlooked by classroom teachers, due to a strong focus on instruction methods and test scores. When regular classroom teachers and school counselors work together, it is much more likely that each student can be reached on a more personal level, allowing a deeper understanding of the material to be gained by all.
Is there a place for school counselor’s to apply learning theories to direct counseling services? Yes. In order for counseling theories to be appropriately applied, it is important for the school counselor to understand how the student learns and what motivates the student. If a student is an intrapersonal learner, then talk-therapy may not be a useful as journaling. School counselors must be able to decipher the personal strengths of the student in order to make counseling as effective as possible. Also, counselors must take motivation into account when providing direct services to students. This concept links back to choice theory and reality therapy. If students do not feel that they have any commitment to change, a lack of motivation for their lives to be different, there is little chance for immediate growth. School counselors must find what motivates students and try to apply that to creating change within the student’s life.

9. REFERENCES
Lane, C. (n.d.). Multiple Intelligences. The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide.
Schunk, D.H. (2012). Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective (6th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.