1. AP Biology
Lab Review

2. Big Idea 1: Evolution

3. Lab 1: Artificial Selection
Concepts:
Natural selection = differential reproduction in a population
Populations change over time  evolution
Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

4. Lab 1: Artificial Selection
Description:
Use Wisconsin Fast Plants to perform artificial selection
Identify traits and variations in traits
Cross-pollinate (top 10%) for selected trait
Collect data for 2 generations (P and F1)

5. Sample Histogram of a Population

6. Lab 1: Artificial Selection
Analysis & Results:
Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range
Are the 2 populations before and after selection (P and F1) actually different?
Are the 2 sub-populations of F1 (hairy vs. non-hairy) different?
Are the means statistically different?
A T-test could be used to determine if 2 sets of data are statistically different from each other

7. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg
Concepts:
Evolution = change in frequency of alleles in a population from generation to generation
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Allele Frequencies (p + q = 1)
Genotypic Frequencies (p2+2pq+q2 = 1)
Conditions:
large population
random mating
no mutations
no natural selection
no migration

8. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg
Description:
Generate mathematical models and computer simulations to see how a hypothetical gene pool changes from one generation to the next
Use Microsoft Excel spreadsheet
p = frequency of A allele
q = frequency of B allele

9. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

10. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg
Setting up Excel spreadsheet

11. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg
Sample Results

12. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg
Analysis & Results:
Null model: in the absence of random events that affect populations, allele frequencies (p,q) should be the same from generation to generation (H-W equilibrium)
Analyze genetic drift and the effect of selection on a given population
Manipulate parameters in model:
Population size, selection (fitness), mutation, migration, genetic drift

13. Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg
Real-life applications:
Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly
Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell Anemia)

14. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
Concepts:
Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math modeling, computer science to analyze biological data
Genomes can be compared to detect genetic similarities and differences
BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool
Input gene sequence of interest
Search genomic libraries for identical or similar sequences

15. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
Description:
Use BLAST to compare several genes
Use information to construct a cladogram (phylogenetic tree)
Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary relatedness of species

16. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

17. Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups
Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups

18. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
Fossil specimen in China
DNA was extracted from preserved tissue
Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

19. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

20. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships
Analysis & Results:
BLAST results: the higher the score, the closer the alignment
The more similar the genes, the more recent their common ancestor  located closer on the cladogram

21. Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

23. Big Idea 2: cellular processes: energy and communication

24. Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis
Concepts:
Selectively permeable membrane
Diffusion (high  low concentration)
Osmosis (aquaporins)
Water potential ()
 = pressure potential (P) + solute potential (S)
Solutions:
Hypertonic
hypotonic
isotonic

25. Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

26. Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis
Description:
Surface area and cell size vs. rate of diffusion
Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt, glucose, protein)
Identify concentrations of sucrose solution and solute concentration of potato cores
Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of salt water)

27. Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

28. Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of Sucrose

29. Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis
Conclusions
Water moves from high water potential ( ) (hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential () (hypertonic=high solute)
Solute concentration & size of molecule affect movement across selectively permeable membrane

32. Lab 5: Photosynthesis Concepts: Photosynthesis
6H2O + 6CO2 + Light  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis:
Production of oxygen (O2)
Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO2)

33. Lab 5: Photosynthesis Description:
Paper chromatography to identify pigments
Floating disk technique
Leaf disks float in water
Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using syringe  leaf sinks
Photosynthesis  O2 produced  bubbles form on leaf  leaf disk rises
Measure rate of photosynthesis by O2 production
Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors of leaves, pH of solutions

34. Plant Pigments & Chromatography

35. Floating Disk Technique

37. Lab 5: Photosynthesis Concepts: photosynthesis Photosystems II, I
H2O split, ATP, NADPH
chlorophylls & other plant pigments
chlorophyll a
chlorophyll b
xanthophylls
carotenoids
experimental design
control vs. experimental

40. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration
Concepts:
Respiration
Measure rate of respiration by:
O2 consumption
CO2 production

41. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration
Description:
Use respirometer
Measure rate of respiration (O2 consumption) in various seeds
Factors tested:
Non-germinating seeds
Germinating seeds
Effect of temperature
Surface area of seeds
Types of seeds
Plants vs. animals

43. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

44. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

45. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration
Conclusions:
temp = respiration
germination = respiration
Animal respiration > plant respiration
 surface area =  respiration
Calculate Rate

46. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

50. Big Idea 3: genetics and information transfer

51. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis Concepts: Cell Cycle (G1  S  G2  M)
Control of cell cycle (checkpoints)
Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
Crossing over  genetic diversity

52. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

53. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

54. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis Description:
Model mitosis & meiosis (pipecleaners, beads)
How environment affects mitosis of plant roots
Lectin - proteins secreted by fungus
Root stimulating powder
Count # cells in interphase, mitosis
Observe karyotypes (cancer, mutations)
Meiosis & crossing over in Sordaria (fungus)

55. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

56. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

57. Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

58. Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

59. Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria)
Arrangement of ascospores

60. distance from centromere
Sordaria Analysis
% crossover
total crossover
total offspring =
distance from centromere
% crossover 2 =

61. Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation
Concepts:
Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings
Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes
Replicates separately from bacteria DNA
Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance
Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO plasmid

62. Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

63. Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

64. Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation
Conclusions:
Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid)
Ampicillin = Selecting agent
No transformation = no growth on amp+ plate
Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

70. Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA
Concepts:
Restriction Enzymes
Cut DNA at specific locations
Gel Electrophoresis
DNA is negatively charged
Smaller fragments travel faster

71. Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA
Description

72. Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA
Determine DNA fragment sizes

73. Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA
Conclusions:
Restriction enzymes cut at specific locations (restriction sites)
DNA is negatively charged
Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than larger fragments
Relative size of DNA fragments can be determined by distance travelled
Use standard curve to calculate size

74. Big Idea 4: interactions

75. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Concepts: Biomass = mass of dry weight
Energy from sunlight  drives photosynthesis (store E in organic compounds)
Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured
But some energy is used for respiration (R)
Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R
Energy flows! (but matter cycles)
Producers  consumers
Biomass = mass of dry weight

76. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Pyramid of Energy Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Numbers

77. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Description:
Brassica (cabbage)  cabbage white butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

78. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Measuring Biomass: Cabbage  mass lost
Caterpillar  mass gained
Caterpillar frass (poop)  dry mass

79. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics
Conclusions:

80. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Conclusions:
Energy is lost (respiration, waste)
Conservation of Mass
Input = Output

83. Lab 11: Transpiration Concepts: Transpiration Xylem Water potential
Cohesion-tension hypothesis
Stomata & Guard cells
Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of transpiration

84. Lab 11: Transpiration

85. Lab 11: Transpiration Description:
Determine relationship between leaf surface area, # stomata, rate of transpiration
Nail polish  stomatal peels
Effects of environmental factors on rate of transpiration
Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind), light intensity

86. Analysis of Stomata

87. Rates of Transpiration

88. Lab 11: Transpiration Conclusions: transpiration:  wind,  light
transpiration:  humidity
Density of stomata vs. transpiration
Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

93. Lab 12: Animal Behavior Concepts: Experimental design
IV, DV, control, constants
Control vs. Experimental
Hypothesis
innate vs. learned behavior
choice chambers
temperature
humidity
light intensity
salinity
other factors

94. Lab 12: Animal Behavior Description:
Investigate relationship between environmental factors vs. behavior
Betta fish agonistic behavior
Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior
Pillbug kinesis

95. Lab 12: Animal Behavior

96. Lab 12: Animal Behavior Hypothesis Development
Poor: I think pillbugs will move toward the wet side of a choice chamber.
Better: If pillbugs are randomly placed on two sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and allowed to move about freely for 10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be found on the wet side because they prefer moist environments.

97. Lab 12: Animal Behavior
Experimental Design
sample size

98. Lab 12: Animal Behavior Data Analysis: Chi-Square Test
Null hypothesis: there is no difference between the conditions
Degrees of Freedom = n-1
At p=0.05, if X2 < critical value  accept null hypothesis (any differences between observed and expected due to CHANCE)

99. Lab 13: Enzyme Activity Concepts: Enzyme Substrate  product
Structure (active site, allosteric site)
Lower activation energy
Substrate  product
Proteins denature (structure/binding site changes)

100. Lab 13: Enzyme Activity Description:
Determine which factors affecting rate of enzyme reaction
H2O2  H2O + O2
Measure rate of O2 production
catalase

101. Turnip peroxidase  Color change (O2 produced)

102. Calculate Rate of Reaction
Lab 13: Enzyme Activity
Conclusions:
Enzyme reaction rate affected by:
pH (acids, bases)
Temperature
Substrate concentration
Enzyme concentration
Calculate Rate of Reaction

104. Any Questions??