1. 38.1 Models
Nobody knows what an atom’s internal structure looks like, for there is no way to see it with our eyes.
To visualize the processes that occur in the subatomic realm, we construct models.
The planetary model in which electrons orbit the nucleus was suggested by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr in It is still useful for understanding the emission of light.

2. 38.1 Models
The planetary model has been replaced by a more complex model in which the electrons are represented as clouds.

3. 38.1 Models
A useful model of the atom must be consistent with a model for light.
Most of what we know about atoms we learn from the light and other radiations they emit.
Most light comes from the motion of electrons within the atom.

4. 38.1 Models There have been two primary models of light:
the particle model and
the wave model.
Isaac Newton believed light was composed of tiny particles.
Christian Huygens believed that light was a wave phenomenon.

5. 38.1 Models
The wave model was reinforced when Thomas Young demonstrated constructive and destructive interference of light.
Later, James Clerk Maxwell proposed that light is an electromagnetic wave.
The wave model gained further support when Heinrich Hertz produced radio waves that behaved as Maxwell had predicted.
In 1905, Albert Einstein resurrected the particle theory of light.

6. 38.2 Light Quanta
Einstein visualized particles of light as concentrated bundles of electromagnetic energy.
Max Planck had proposed that atoms do not emit and absorb light continuously, but do so in little chunks.
Each chunk was considered a quantum, or a fundamental unit.
One quantum of light energy is now called a photon.

7. 38.2 Light Quanta
Matter is quantized, equal to some whole-number multiple of the mass of a single atom.
Electric charge is quantized as a multiple of the charge of a single electron.
Other quantities such as energy and angular momentum are quantized.

8. 38.2 Light Quanta
The energy in a light beam is quantized and comes in packets, or quanta; only a whole number of quanta can exist.
The quanta of electromagnetic radiation are the photons.
Photons have no rest energy.
They move at the speed of light so the total energy of a photon is the same as its kinetic energy.

9. 38.2 Light Quanta
The energy of a photon of light is proportional to its vibrational frequency.
When the energy E of a photon is divided by its frequency f, the quantity that results is known as Planck’s constant, h.
This quantity is always the same, no matter what the frequency.
The energy of every photon is therefore E = hf.
This equation gives the smallest amount of energy that can be converted to light of frequency f.

10. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
Einstein found support for his quantum theory of light in the photoelectric effect.
The photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons from certain metals when light falls upon them.
These metals are said to be photosensitive.

11. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect
Energy from the light shining on a metal plate gives electrons bound in the metal enough energy to escape.
High-frequency light, even from a dim source, is capable of ejecting electrons from a photosensitive metal surface.
Low-frequency light, even from a very bright source, cannot dislodge electrons.
Since bright light carries more energy than dim light, it was puzzling that dim blue light could dislodge electrons when bright red light could not.

12. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in terms of photons.
The absorption of a photon by an atom in the metal surface is an all-or-nothing process.
Only one photon is absorbed by each electron ejected from the metal.
The number of photons that hit the metal has nothing to do with whether a given electron will be ejected.
If the energy in the photon is large enough, the electron will be ejected from the metal.

13. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
The intensity of light does not matter. From E = hf, the critical factor is the frequency, or color, of the light.
Each blue or violet light photon carries enough energy to free an electron from the metal.
A few photons of blue or violet light can eject a few electrons. Many red or orange photons cannot eject a single electron.
Only high-frequency photons have the energy needed to pull loose an electron.

14. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
Support for the Particle Model of Light
The energy of a wave is spread out along a broad front.
For the energy of a light wave to be concentrated enough to eject a single electron from a metal surface is unlikely.
The photoelectric effect suggests that light interacts with matter as a stream of particle-like photons.

15. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
The number of photons in a light beam controls the brightness of the whole beam.
The frequency of the light controls the energy of each individual photon.
Experimental verification of Einstein’s explanation was made 11 years later by the American physicist Robert Millikan.
Every aspect of Einstein’s interpretation was confirmed, including the direct proportionality of photon energy to frequency.

16. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
think!
Will high-frequency light eject a greater number of electrons than low-frequency light?

17. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
think!
Will high-frequency light eject a greater number of electrons than low-frequency light?
Answer:
Not necessarily. The answer is yes if electrons are ejected by the high-frequency light but not by the low-frequency light, because its photons do not have enough energy. If the light of both frequencies can eject electrons, then the number of electrons ejected depends on the brightness of the light, not on its frequency.

18. 38.3 The Photoelectric Effect
What does the photoelectric effect suggest about the way light interacts with matter?

19. 38.4 Waves as Particles
Light behaves like waves when it travels in empty space, and like particles when it interacts with solid matter.

20. 38.5 Particles as Waves
If waves can have particle properties, cannot particles have wave properties?
This question was posed by the French physicist Louis de Broglie and his answer later won the Nobel Prize in physics.

21. 38.5 Particles as Waves
De Broglie suggested that all matter could be viewed as having wave properties.

22. 38.5 Particles as Waves
All particles—electrons, protons, atoms, marbles, and even humans—have a wavelength:
where h is Planck’s constant.

23. 38.5 Particles as Waves
The wavelength of a particle is called the de Broglie wavelength.
A particle of large mass and ordinary speed has too small a wavelength to be detected by conventional means.
A tiny particle—such as an electron—moving at typical speed has a detectable wavelength.

24. 38.5 Particles as Waves
The wavelength of electrons is smaller than the wavelength of visible light but large enough for noticeable diffraction.
A beam of electrons can be diffracted and undergoes wave interference under the same conditions that light does.

25. 38.5 Particles as Waves
An electron microscope uses the wave nature of electrons.
The wavelength of electron beams is typically thousands of times shorter than the wavelength of visible light.
The electron microscope is able to distinguish details thousands of times smaller than is possible with optical microscopes.

26. 38.5 Particles as Waves
What did de Broglie suggest about all matter?

27. 38.6 Electron Waves
The planetary model of the atom was useful in explaining the atomic spectra of the elements and why elements emitted only certain frequencies of light.
An electron has different amounts of energy when it is in different orbits around a nucleus.
An electron is in a different energy level when it is in a different orbit.
Electrons in an atom normally occupy the lowest energy levels available.

28. 38.6 Electron Waves
In the Bohr model of the atom, the electron orbits correspond to different energy levels.

29. Bohr Model Explanation of Atomic Spectra
38.6 Electron Waves
Bohr Model Explanation of Atomic Spectra
An electron can be boosted to a higher energy level.
This occurs in gas discharge tubes such as neon signs.
Electric current boosts electrons of the gas to higher energy levels.
As the electrons return to lower levels, photons are emitted.
The energy of a photon is exactly equal to the difference in the energy levels in the atom.

30. 38.6 Electron Waves
The pattern of lines in the spectrum of an element corresponds to electron transitions between the energy levels of the atoms of that element.
By examining spectra, physicists were able to determine the various energy levels in the atom.

31. 38.6 Electron Waves
Why were electrons at discrete distances from the atomic nucleus?
This was resolved by thinking of the electron not as a particle whirling around the nucleus but as a wave.
According to de Broglie’s theory of matter waves, electron orbits exist only where an electron wave closes in on itself in phase.

32. 38.6 Electron Waves De Broglie’s Theory
The electron is visualized not as a particle located at some point in the atom.
Its mass and charge are spread throughout a wave surrounding the nucleus.
The wavelength of the electron wave must fit evenly into the circumferences of the orbits.

33. 38.6 Electron Waves De Broglie suggested electrons have a wavelength.
Electron orbits exist only when the circumference of the orbit is a whole-number multiple of the wavelength.

34. 38.6 Electron Waves De Broglie suggested electrons have a wavelength.
Electron orbits exist only when the circumference of the orbit is a whole-number multiple of the wavelength.
When the wave does not close in on itself in phase, the orbit cannot exist.

35. 38.6 Electron Waves
The circumference of the innermost orbit, according to this model, is equal to one wavelength of the electron wave.
The second orbit has a circumference of two electron wavelengths, the third three, and so on.

36. 38.6 Electron Waves
Orbit circumferences are whole-number multiples of the electron wavelengths, which differ for the various elements.
This results in discrete energy levels, which characterize each element.
Since the circumferences of electron orbits are discrete, the radii of these orbits, and hence the energy levels, are also discrete.

37. 38.6 Electron Waves

38. 38.6 Electron Waves
This explains why electrons do not spiral closer and closer to the nucleus when photons are emitted.
Since an orbit is described by a wave, the circumference of the smallest orbit can be no smaller than one wavelength.
In the modern wave model of the atom, electron waves also move in and out, toward and away from the nucleus.
The electron wave is in three dimensions, an electron “cloud.”

39. 38.6 Electron Waves
How did de Broglie’s theory of matter waves describe electron orbits?

40. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
The radii of the electron orbits in the Bohr model of the atom are determined by the amount of electric charge in the nucleus.

41. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
The single proton in the hydrogen atom holds one negatively charged electron in an orbit at a particular radius.
In helium, the orbiting electron would be pulled into a tighter orbit with half its former radius since the electrical attraction is doubled.
This doesn’t quite happen because the double-positive charge in the nucleus attracts and holds a second electron.
The negative charge of the second electron diminishes the effect of the positive nucleus.

42. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
This added electron makes the atom electrically neutral.
The two electrons assume an orbit characteristic of helium.
In a lithium atom, an additional proton pulls the first two electrons into an even closer orbit and holds a third electron in a second orbit.

43. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
As the nuclear charge increases, the inner orbits shrink because of the stronger electrical attraction to the nucleus.
This means that the heavier elements are not much larger in diameter than the lighter elements.
The diameter of the uranium atom, for example, is only about three hydrogen diameters, even though it is 238 times more massive.

44. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
Each element has a unique arrangement of electron orbits.
The radii of orbits for the sodium atom are the same for all sodium atoms, but different from the radii of orbits for other kinds of atoms.
The Bohr model solved the mystery of the atomic spectra of the elements.
The model accounted for the chemical properties of the elements and predicted properties of hafnium, which led to its discovery.

45. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
Bohr was quick to point out that his model was to be interpreted as a crude beginning.
The picture of electrons whirling like planets about the sun was not to be taken literally.
His discrete orbits were conceptual representations of an atom whose later description involved a wave description.

46. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
In the Bohr model, the electrons orbit the nucleus like planets going around the sun.

47. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
In the Bohr model, the electrons orbit the nucleus like planets going around the sun.
According to de Broglie’s idea, a wave follows along an orbit.

48. 38.7 Relative Sizes of Atoms
In the Bohr model, the electrons orbit the nucleus like planets going around the sun.
According to de Broglie’s idea, a wave follows along an orbit.
The wave model—electrons are distributed in a “cloud” throughout the volume of the atom.

49. 38.8 Quantum Physics
Physicists became convinced that the Newtonian laws that work so well for large objects do not apply to the microworld of the atom.
In the macroworld, the study of motion is called mechanics, or sometimes classical mechanics.
The study of the motion of particles in the microworld of atoms and nuclei is called quantum mechanics.
The branch of physics that is the general study of the microworld of photons, atoms, and nuclei is simply called quantum physics.

50. 38.8 Quantum Physics
There are fundamental uncertainties in the measurements of the atomic domain.
For the measurement of macroscopic quantities, such as the temperature of materials or the speeds of light and sound, there is no limit to the accuracy with which the experimenter can measure.

51. 38.8 Quantum Physics
Subatomic measurements, such as the momentum and position of an electron or the mass of an extremely short-lived particle, are entirely different.
In this domain, the uncertainties in many measurements are comparable to the magnitudes of the quantities themselves.
The subatomic interactions described by quantum mechanics are governed by laws of probability, not laws of certainty.

52. 38.8 Quantum Physics
What laws govern the interactions described by quantum mechanics?

53. Assessment Questions A model of an atom is useful when it
shows exactly what an atom looks like.
magnifies what the eye can’t see.
helps to visualize processes that cannot be seen with our eyes.
is shown only as the planetary model.

54. Assessment Questions A model of an atom is useful when it
shows exactly what an atom looks like.
magnifies what the eye can’t see.
helps to visualize processes that cannot be seen with our eyes.
is shown only as the planetary model.
Answer: C

55. Assessment Questions In the equation E = hf, f stands for the
frequency of a photon with energy E.
wavelength of a photon with energy E.
Planck’s constant with energy h.
quantum of energy.

56. Assessment Questions In the equation E = hf, f stands for the
frequency of a photon with energy E.
wavelength of a photon with energy E.
Planck’s constant with energy h.
quantum of energy.
Answer: A

57. Assessment Questions
Which of these photons is more likely to initiate the photoelectric effect?
red
green
blue
violet

58. Assessment Questions
Which of these photons is more likely to initiate the photoelectric effect?
red
green
blue
violet
Answer: D

59. Assessment Questions
Which of these best illustrates the dual nature of light?
Light travels as a wave and interacts with solid matter like a particle.
Light travels as a particle and interacts with solid matter like a wave.
Light can interact in empty spaces as do particles, and travel around solid matter as do waves.
Light does not have a dual nature.

60. Assessment Questions
Which of these best illustrates the dual nature of light?
Light travels as a wave and interacts with solid matter like a particle.
Light travels as a particle and interacts with solid matter like a wave.
Light can interact in empty spaces as do particles, and travel around solid matter as do waves.
Light does not have a dual nature.
Answer: A

61. Assessment Questions The wavelength of a matter wave is
directly proportional to its momentum.
inversely proportional to its momentum.
equal to its momentum.
theoretical only.

62. Assessment Questions The wavelength of a matter wave is
directly proportional to its momentum.
inversely proportional to its momentum.
equal to its momentum.
theoretical only.
Answer: B

63. Assessment Questions
The view of radii of electrons about the atomic nucleus is nicely understood by thinking of the electrons as
standing waves.
discrete particles.
resonating vibrations.
reflections.

64. Assessment Questions
The view of radii of electrons about the atomic nucleus is nicely understood by thinking of the electrons as
standing waves.
discrete particles.
resonating vibrations.
reflections.
Answer: A

65. Assessment Questions
The greater the number of protons in a nucleus, the
larger the orbits of the outermost electron.
tighter the orbits of all electrons.
looser inner orbits become.
more electrically neutral the atom becomes.

66. Assessment Questions
The greater the number of protons in a nucleus, the
larger the orbits of the outermost electron.
tighter the orbits of all electrons.
looser inner orbits become.
more electrically neutral the atom becomes.
Answer: B

67. Assessment Questions
Subatomic interactions described by quantum mechanics are governed by
the same laws of classical physics.
laws of certainty.
laws of probability.
exact measurements.

68. Assessment Questions
Subatomic interactions described by quantum mechanics are governed by
the same laws of classical physics.
laws of certainty.
laws of probability.
exact measurements.
Answer: C

69. Assessment Questions
A feature of chaotic systems is that small changes in initial conditions
lead to small differences later.
lead to big differences later.
may lead to big differences later.
have little or no relation to small or big differences later.

70. Assessment Questions
A feature of chaotic systems is that small changes in initial conditions
lead to small differences later.
lead to big differences later.
may lead to big differences later.
have little or no relation to small or big differences later.
Answer: C