1. Sociology and science: positivism
The link between science and sociology

2. Positivist sociologists like comte and Durkheim copied the methods of the natural and physical sciences
Partly because they wanted to gain status for sociology but also because they thought that it was useful to collect objective statistical data. For example these statistics can be used to:
A: detect trends in peoples behaviour
B: to make comparisons between different countries and social groups

3. The techniques used by positivists to collect statistical data are
Experiments
Surveys
Postal closed questionnaires
Non participation obvs
Structured interviews
Self completion questionnaire
Content analysis
Official statistics

4. Key words associated with positivism
Quantitative
External forces
Variables – dependent and independent
Sociology is a science
Objectivity
Quantifiable
Hypothesis
Reliable
Detached
Social facts
General law
Real law
Causation
Correlation
Verification
Inductive reason / induction

5. The influence of science
Positivism can be defined as the view that ‘empirical science is the only valid form of human knowledge’
Comte:
Argued that the scientific study of science should be confined to collecting info that can be objectively observed and classified
For comte, it was possible to turn objective ‘facts’ about the world into statistical form
He argued that sociologists shouldn’t be concerned with the internal meanings, motives, feelings and emotions of individuals
Comte assumed that the only way to study the social world was to use a scientific method developed by the natural sciences
He thought that: observation, categorisation and the measurement of facts were important to avoid abstract theorising

6. Using methods of the natural sciences
Positivists believe that it is possible and desirable to apply the logic and methods of the natural sciences to the study of society. Doing so will bring us truth, objective knowledge of the same type as that found in the natural sciences
This will provide the basis for solving social problems and achieving progress
Methods drawn from the natural and physical sciences -> chemistry, biology, physics

7. A key feature of the positivist approach is the belief that reality exists outside and independently of the human mind
Natural is made up of objective, observable, physical facts, such as rocks, cells, stars etc, which are external to our minds and which exist whether we like it or not
Similarly, society is an objective factual reality- it is a real ‘thing’ made up of social facts that exist ‘out there’, independently of individuals, just like the physical world

8. Patterns, laws and inductive reasoning
There are regular patterns in society the same way we know that water boils at 100 degrees. We should observe, identify, measure and record these patterns which can lead us to explaining them
They use inductive reasoning meaning that they gather loads of data about the world through observation and measurement and then find general patterns

9. Verificationism
Positivists need to have theories that are true, otherwise they are pointless. They need to make sure that all the evidence they have verifies their theory they have made. When it does they claim to have discovered a ‘general law’
Inductive reasoning o=in its nature verifies theories as the theories are built upon date
They explain the patterns in society as being caused by social factors
For instance, the social fact of egoistical suicide might be explained by the social fact of social integration of moral regulation
If we can explain social facts by other social facts then this can help improve society- influencing policies

10. Inductive methodology
Positivism uses a methodology that starts by collecting date
The data is analysed and out of this theories are developed
Once this theory has been developed, it can be tested against other sets of date to see if it is confirmed or not (validity)
Thus, the data is provisional until it has been verified by other researchers

11. Objective quantitative research
They want us all to use scientific methods as it is the best way to test a hypothesis in a controlled way
They like quantitative data ebcasue it produces mathematically precise statements about the relationship/ pattern they are studying
They aimto find cause and effect in studying this way
They try to remove all subjective feelings and opinions much like natural science, no matter how hard you boil water at 2 degrees it will only ever boil at 100

12. Objectivity
Scientists shouldn’t allow their own personal values to affect the investigation
If this does happen then it may invalidate the research by biasing their findings
Support detachment

13. Durkheim
Agreed that sociologists should confine themselves to studying social facts. And he followed the logic and methods of prescriptivism
Argued that scientific methods could be used to show that an individuals behaviours may be determined by the external world around them
To demonstrate this he used a comparative method of comparing statistics on the area of suicide

14. Durkheim and suicide

15. Durkheim thought suicide statistics were objective indicators of unusual deaths is they were definite facts
They demonstrated collective patters in behaviour showing that some groups were more prone to suicide than others eg the single, widowed, divorced, and the childless
He challenged the view that suicide wasn’t an individual action but one that was dictated by the extent that someone was integrated or regulated into society or a social group

16. Suicide rates are social facts
Durkheim believes that suicide is a social fact, which is a social force external to the individual in the structure of society
He said that suicide cannot be down to just individual motives because there were vast differences between groups in societies and societies compared to other societies. So it has to be something in the social structure which causes it. Thus suicide is a social factor
Suicide rates are social facts/real laws as different levels of integration and regulation produces different rates of suicide
Durkheim studied quantitative suicide rates from European countries for decades and found that:
Different societies have different rates
Rates varied between social groups
Suicide rates within a society remained more or less constant over time

17. For Durkheim he said that these rates were due to two social factors/ independent variables:
Integration
Regulation
How far individuals feel like they belong to a group
How far individuals acts are kept in check by norms

18. Classifications of suicide (4)

19. People feel they don’t belong and cant cope Eg kurt cobain
Egoistical suicide (affected by too little integration)
Alturistic suicide (affected too much by integration)
People feel they don’t belong and cant cope
Eg kurt cobain
Eg catholics have a lower rate than protestants because they are tightly integrated into shared rituals
Society is seen as more important than themselves
Sacrifice themselves for the good of society
Eg suicide bombers
Eg Japanese kamikaze pilots

20. Where societies norms become out of date or blurred from sudden change
Atomistic suicide (affected by too little regulation)
Fatalistic suicide (too much regulation)
Where societies norms become out of date or blurred from sudden change
Things may be changing too quickly and individuals may feel out of control
Eg economic booms and slumps
Where societies control individuals completely like slaves or prisoners
Where people feel stifled and trapped, cant make decisions because of tight control
Eg concentration camp/prisoners
Eg terminally ill individuals

21. Evaluation of durkheims study
Suicide rates were not as reliably collected back in his day as they didn’t have the national administrative capabilities and rarely conducted autopsies to find out whether something was suicide or not
Although his aim to conduct scientific research is still good
Praised for over 70 years of good use of positivist research

22. Evaluation of positivism in general by interpretivism
Interpretivists take the view that since humans think and reflect, scientific methods are inappropriate for the study of society
Unlike objects in nature, humans can change their behaviour if they know they are being observed (hawthorne effect)
It fails to realise that behaviour is not the result of external influences, but the result of experience through interactions with others
Interpretivists question whether its possible for researchers to be truly objective when carrying out research
Interpretivists abandon the detachment/objectivity favoured by positivist and instead suggest that researchers need to see the world from the eyes of the world that they are studying