1. Processes in Memory Three step process…
Encoding: processing information into memory storage
Storage: retaining memories over time
Retrieval: getting information out of memory storage

2. Retrieval Tasks
Retrieving information out of memory storage through two processes:
1. Recall
2. Recognition
Recall
Recognition
must retrieve the information from memory
fill-in-the blank, short response, or essay tests
must identify the correct target from a set of choices
multiple-choice tests

3. Serial-Position Effect
Primacy Effect
Remembering the beginning of a list
the PRIMARY information
Recency Effect
Remembering the end of a list
the most RECENT information
Serial Positioning Effect
Remembering the beginning and end of a list

4. Encoding Specificity
Information present during encoding tends to be an effective retrieval cue
Change in context between ENCODING and RETRIEVAL can cause memory failure
Context-dependent Memory: We remember better when we recall information in the same context in which we learned it
State-dependent Memory: We remember better when we recall information in the same state of mind (consciousness) in which we learned it
Mood-congruent Memory: We remember better when we recall information in the same mood in which we learned it
*Setting, consciousness, and emotions can serve as retrieval cues.

5. Retrieval Cues Stimuli that assists in memory retrieval
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations
Associations are like fish hooks that help retrieve memories
Priming: The activation of associations in our memory to help us retrieve information
Implicit Memory
Involuntary
Priming Effect: The increased sensitivity to particular stimuli/schema due to recent experience

6. Memory Construction
When retrieving memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our memory make sense
We can use schemas to make this happen
When this happens, we are prone to misinformation effect
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into our memory of an event
Information that happens after an event can alter our recollection of that event
Occurs when people’s recollections of events are distorted by information given to them after the event occurred
Recall of episodic memories become less accurate, because of post-event information

7. Misinformation and Constructive Memory
Studied by Elizabeth Loftus
Subjects were shown a video of a car accident
Subjects were then questioned about the video
Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Depiction of the actual accident.

8. Misinformation and Constructive Memory
A week later, both groups were asked: Was there any broken glass?
Group B (smashed) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

9. Misinformation and Constructive Memory
Studied by Elizabeth Loftus
Bugs Bunny at Disney
Lost at the mall/drowned in a lake
Research shows that if false memories are implanted, individuals will construct memories

10. Déjà vu Déjà vu is French for “already seen”
Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience

11. Forgetting

12. Forgetting An inability to retrieve information
May be caused by poor encoding, storage, or retrieval
Encoding failure
Storage failure
Retrieval failure
Interference theory
Decay theory
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon
Amnesia
Motivated forgetting
Stress

13. Forgetting Curve Studied by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885)
First to study forgetting
Memorized 13 nonsense syllables
Showed relationship between forgetting and time

14. Spacing Effect
We learn and remember items more easily when repeatedly studied over a long span of time rather than repeatedly studied in a short span of time
We retain information better when we rehearse over time
DO NOT CRAM!!!

15. Interference Theory
Other information gets in the way of what you want to remember (retrieve)
Proactive interference:
Old information blocks out new information
Retroactive interference:
New information blocks out old information
Sleep prevents retroactive interference; therefore, it leads to better memory
Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name.
Learning a new chapter and forgetting the previous chapter.

16. Decay Theory
When we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this memory trace begins to fade and disappear (decay)
Without rehearsal, memories decay rapidly
If information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will be lost over time
Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve
Problem: sometimes we can recover “forgotten” memories
research has demonstrated that sometimes memories which have not been rehearsed are remarkably stable in long-term memory

17. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT)
Occurs when we are confident that we know something but cannot quite pull it out of memory
Effortful retrieval
Demonstrates that we do not store all information about a memory in one way
“It’s on the tip of my tongue”

18. Types of Memory
Prospective memory: Remembering what you have to do in the future
“I have to study for my QUEST”
Retrospective memory: Remembering what occurred in the past
“I remember the 3 step process to memory”

19. Amnesia Memory loss Brain damage and illness can result in amnesia
Retrograde amnesia: memory loss for a segment of the past, but not for new events
Anterograde amnesia: memory loss that affects the retention of new information and events, but not for past events
Finding Nemo (Dory)
50 First Dates (10-Second Tom)

20. Source Amnesia Attributing a memory to the wrong source
Did I Experience, Hear, Read, or Imagine it?
Also called misattribution or source monitoring error
Studied by Marcia Johnson
Source Monitoring: making attributions about the origins of memories
Source Monitoring Error: when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source
Reality Monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perception of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imaginations)
Reality Monitoring Error: An inability to discriminate between internal and external sources

21. Motivated Forgetting
Forgetting something that is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering is intolerable
Banishes thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness that cause too much stress or anxiety
Repression: unconsciously forcing unwanted information out of our awareness
Suppression: consciously forcing unwanted information out of our awareness
Both are defense mechanisms
Proposed by Sigmund Freud
Serves to protect