1. Operant Conditioning
A form of learning in which behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences
Associated with B.F. Skinner

2. Four possible consequences to behavior
Something good could start or be presented
Something good could stop or be taken away
Something bad could start or be presented
Something bad could stop or be taken away
In operant conditioning, the word “positive” means that something starts or is added.
The word “negative” means that something is taken away or stopped.

3. Reinforcement
Increase in probability of a response caused by stimuli (consequence) that follows it
Goal is to increase the behavior
Reinforcers make behavior occur more frequently, make it more likely to occur, or make it occur more strongly.

4. Punishment
Decrease in the probability of a response caused by the stimuli (consequence) that follow it
Goal is to decrease the behavior—make it occur more weakly, less often, or less likely to occur at all.

5. Two types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement: response is strengthened because it’s followed by presentation of a desirable stimulus
Negative reinforcement: response is strengthened because it’s followed by removal of an aversive stimulus

6. Two types of punishment
Positive punishment: aversive event following a response; decreases the tendency to make the response
Negative punishment: removal of a desirable stimulus following a response; decreases the tendency to make the response

7. Reinforcement/Punishment Chart
Reinforcement (behavior increases)
Punishment (behavior decreases)
Positive (something added)
Positive reinforcement (Something good added increases behavior)
Positive punishment (Something unpleasant added decreases behavior)
Negative (something taken away)
Negative reinforcement (Something bad taken away increases behavior)
Negative punishment
(Something good taken away decreases behavior)

8. Is punishment effective?
Effective in decreasing responses, but sometimes it results in suppression of all behavior if punishment is too severe
To make it more effective:
Apply swiftly
Be just severe enough to be effective
Be consistent
Explain the punishment
Reinforce alternative behavior

9. In general…
Consequences—good or bad—must be either immediate (in the case of animals) or clearly explained to the individual in which it is made clear that the consequence is linked to the behavior.

10. Shaping
A way to teach someone a new behavior that he’d never perform naturally
Person or animal is reinforced for successive approximations of a target behavior, and finally, for the behavior itself
Person or animal receives a small reward for each small step toward a final goal, rather than just a reward for the target response

11. Schedules of reinforcement
How often are you reinforced for your behavior? Could be continuous or partial.
Continuous: you get a reinforcement/reward every time you perform the behavior
Partial: you get a reinforcement after only a certain amount of time has passed (interval schedule) or after a certain number of responses (ratio)

12. Fixed ratio
Provides reinforcement after a specific number of desired responses
High, steady response rate
Brief post-reinforcement pause
Example: Getting paid every time you sell another 5 magazine subscriptions

13. Fixed Ratio Graph

14. Fixed interval Provides reinforcement after a set period of time
Produces a drop in responding immediately after reinforcement (post-reinforcement pause) and a gradual increase in responding at the time for the next reinforcement
Scalloping: greatly exaggerated post-reinforcement pause
Worst schedule to use in education, but it’s often used (e.g., test every second Friday)

15. Fixed Interval Graph
Notice the scalloping pattern.

16. Variable ratio schedule
Provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of desired resp onses
High steady rates of responding
Highest burnout rate
Produces behaviors that are highly resistant to extinction, persist long after the reinforcement isn’t available any more. Called the partial reinforcement effect.

17. Graph of variable ratio schedule

18. Variable interval schedule
Provides reinforcement for the first desired response made after varying periods of time
Slow, steady rate of responding
Less chance of burnout
Best schedule, especially for education (e.g., unannounced pop quizzes)
Example: fishing (waiting for fish to bite)

19. Variable Interval Schedule

20. Summary of Schedules
Ratio schedules—faster response rates than interval schedules because number of responses, not passage of times, determines reinforcement
Variable schedules—steadier response rates than fixed schedules because people don’t know when their payoff will be.

21. A comparison of the schedules of reinforcement
Notice that the ratio schedules produce faster, higher response rates than the interval schedules. Variable schedules produce steadier response rates fixed schedules. There are no scalloping patterns or postreinforcement pauses with variable schedules.

22. Premack Principle
What’s an effective reinforcer for one person might not be an effective reinforcer for another
Example: Giving kids M&Ms to turn knobs; sometimes turning knobs is more fun than getting M&Ms.

23. Observational Learning
Occurs when a behavior is learned by observing the consequences that others receiver for performing it; MODELING.
Also called “Social Learning”
Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1963): Bobo doll study

24. Footage of the Bobo doll study

25. Questions about observational learning
Why would a child imitate a behavior if it isn’t reinforced? Because imitation aids in survival and adaptation, and it’s favored by natural selection.
Do other species use observational learning? Yes, it’s even been demonstrated in cockroaches.

26. Processes that must take place for observational learning to occur
Attention to model’s actions
Retention of model’s actions
Reproduction of model’s actions
Motivation to perform model’s actions
You may acquire a behavior but not perform it if you see the performance will result in negative consequences.