1. Chapter 9
Memory

2. Memory Memory Flashbulb Memory
persistence of learning over time via the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

3. Memory Memory as Information Processing Encoding similar to a computer
write to file
save to disk
read from disk
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system

4. Memory Storage Retrieval
the retention of encoded information over time
Retrieval
process of getting information out of memory

5. Memory
How do we store memory?
How do we retrieve memory?

6. Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Working Memory
focuses more on the processing of briefly stored information

7. Short vs. Long term memory
Whats the difference between the two?
How does our brain know to distinguish between these two?

8. Memory Short Term Memory Long Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly
look up a phone number, then quickly dial before the information is forgotten
Long Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

9. Short Term Memory Recall this number: 12358
How long do you think this number will stay in your memory? Why?

10. A Simplified Memory Model
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term
Sensory input
Attention to important
or novel information
Encoding
Retrieving

11. Encoding Automatic Processing
subconscious encoding of incidental information
space
time
frequency
well-learned information
word meanings
we can learn automatic processing
reading backwards

12. Encoding Effortful Processing Rehearsal
requires attention and conscious effort
Rehearsal
conscious repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness
to encode it for storage

13. Effortful vs. Automatic
What are the difference between the two?

14. What Do We Encode? Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual Encoding
encoding of meaning
including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
Visual Encoding
encoding of picture images

15. Encoding

16. Encoding Imagery mental pictures
a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding
Mnemonics
memory aids
especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

17. Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization
often occurs automatically
use of acronyms
HOMES- Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ARITHMETIC- A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

18. Encoding
Hierarchies
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding
(automatic
or effortful)
Imagery
(visual
Encoding)
Meaning
(semantic
Organization
Chunks
Hierarchies

19. Storage- Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second
Registration of exact representation of a scene
Echoic Memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

20. Storage- Short Term Memory
limited in duration and capacity
“magical” number 7+/-2

21. Storage- Short Term Memory10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3 6 9 12 15 18
Time in seconds between presentation
of contestants and recall request
(no rehearsal allowed)
Percentage
who recalled
consonants

22. Storage- Long Term Memory
How does storage work?
Relevance plays an important role in memory. How so?
Strong emotions make for stronger memories. How so?

23. Storage- Long Term Memory
Amnesia- the loss of memory
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare
hippocampus- neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Implicit Memory
retention without conscious recollection
motor and cognitive skills
dispositions- conditioning

24. Storage- Long Term Memory Subsystems
Types of
long-term
memories
Explicit
(declarative)
With conscious
recall
Implicit
(nondeclarative)
Without conscious
Facts-general
knowledge
(“semantic
memory”)
Personally
experienced
events
(“episodic
Skills-motor
and cognitive
Dispositions-
classical and
operant
conditioning
effects

25. Storage- Long Term Memory
MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus

26. Retrieval- Getting Information Out
Recall
the ability to retrieve info learned earlier and not in conscious awareness-like fill in the blank test
Recognition
the ability to identify previously learned items-like on a multiple choice test

27. Retrieval Relearning Priming
amount of time saved when relearning previously learned information
Priming
activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
What are examples of relearning/primiing?

28. Retrieval Cues Reminders of information we could not otherwise recall
Guides to where to look for info
Context Effects
memory works better in the context of original learning

29. Retrieval Cues Deja Vu- (French) already seen Mood Congruent Memory
cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before"
Mood Congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
memory, emotions or moods serve as retrieval cues
State Dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state

30. Forgetting Information never enters the memory system
Forgetting as encoding failure
Information never enters the memory system
Attention is selective
we cannot attend to everything in our environment
William James said that we would be as bad off if we remembered everything as we would be if we remembered nothing

31. Forgetting as Encoding Failure
External
events
Sensory
memory
Short-
term
Long-
Attention
Encoding
failure leads
to forgetting

32. Forgetting Forgetting as encoding failure
Which penny is the real thing?

33. Forgetting
What was the number that I asked you for earlier?

34. Forgetting Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60
Time in days since learning list
Percentage of
list retained
when
relearning
Ebbinghaus- forgetting curve over 30 days
initially rapid, then levels off with time

35. Time in years after completion of Spanish course
Forgetting
The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school
Retention
drops,
then levels off
½ 14½ ½ ½
Time in years after completion of Spanish course
100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage of
original
vocabulary
retained

36. Retrieval
Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory
External
events
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensory
memory
Short-term
Long-term

37. Forgetting as Interference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other information
Proactive(forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Interference
disruptive effect of new learning on recall of old information

38. Forgetting as Interference

39. Hours elapsed after learning syllables
Forgetting
Retroactive Interference
Without interfering
events, recall is
better
After sleep
After remaining awake
Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
Percentage
of syllables
recalled

40. Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

41. Forgetting Information bits Sensory memory - the senses momentarily
register amazing detail
Short term memory - a few items are
both noticed and encoded
Long-term storage - Some items
are altered or lost
Retrieval from long-term memory -
depending on interference, retrieval cues
moods and motives, some things get
retrieved, some don’t
Information bits

42. Forgetting- Interference
Motivated Forgetting
people unknowingly revise history
Repression
defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Positive Transfer
sometimes old information facilitates our learning of new information
knowledge of Latin may help us to learn French

43. Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
Source Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

44. Memory Construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”
Memory
construction
Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

45. Memory Construction
People fill in memory gaps with plausible guesses and assumptions
Imagining events can create false memories
Children's eyewitness recall
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some innocent people suffer false accusations
Some guilty cast doubt on true testimony

46. Memory Construction Memories of Abuse False Memory Syndrome
Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occur
Some adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory Syndrome
condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

47. Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following:
Injustice happens
Incest happens
Forgetting happens
Recovered memories are commonplace
Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are unreliable
Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable
Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

48. Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material
Make material personally meaningful
Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words- something already stored
make up story
chunk-acronyms

49. Improve Your Memory rehearse determine what you do not yet know
Activate retrieval cues- mentally recreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are fresh- write down before interference
Minimize interference
Test your own knowledge
rehearse
determine what you do not yet know